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Final Exam - Flashcards
Flashcard Deck Information
| Class: | ANPS 019 - Ugr Hum Anatomy & Physiology |
| Subject: | Anatomy/Physiology |
| University: | University of Vermont |
| Term: | Fall 2009 |
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Motor Systems
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The motor system is the part of the central nervous system that is involved to movement. The basic unit of motor activity = motor unit = the single motor neuron + all the muscle cells that it synapses on |
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Lower + Upper Motor Neuron
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LOWER MOTOR NEURON (LMN) -Cell body in spinal cord (spinal nerve) or in brainstem (cranial nerves) -Axon terminals UPPER MOTOR NEURON (UMN) -Cell body in brainstem or cortex -Synapses on lower motor neuron -Strong influence on lower motor neuron |
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Reflex Arc
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A reflex arc is the neural pathway that mediates a reflex action. Components: 1. Receptor 2. Afferent sensory neuron 3. Efferent motor neuron (alpha + gamma) 4. Effector -May also include an association/interneuron |
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Muscle Spindle
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Muscle spindles are sensory receptors within the belly of a muscle, which primarily detect changes in the length of this muscle. -Monitors muscle length and rate of change -Organized in parallel with extrafussal muscle fibers |
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Extrafusal vs. Intrafusal Muscle Fibers
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-Sensory receptor is associated with intrafusal receptor muscle -Requires 2 types -Alpha = innervation extrafusal muscle -Gamma= innervation intrafusal -Both must fire simultaneously |
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Golgi Tendon Organ
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The Golgi organ (also called Golgi tendon organ, neurotendinous organ or neurotendinous spindle), is a proprioceptive sensory receptor organ that is located at the insertion of skeletal muscle fibers into the tendons of skeletal muscle. -Monitors muscle tension -Organized in series with extrafusal muscle fibers |
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Myotatic (stretch) Reflex
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-The simplest reflex -Monosynaptic reflex between muscle spindle + motor neuron -Contraction/excitation of agonist (same) muscle -Relaxation/inhibition of antagonist (opposing) muscle -Interneuron inhibits antagonist muscle |
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Patellar Reflex Test
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-Stretch reflex is working constantly to help us maintain posture -Test by hitting knee and observing knee jerk or lack of one depending on the situation |
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Inverse Myotatic (lengthening) Reflex
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-Disynaptic reflex between GTO and motor neuron -Interneuron inhibits agonist (same) muscle -Protects against muscle damage during extreme muscle exertion |
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Withdrawal (flexor) Reflex
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-Initiated by noxious (painful) stimuli |
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Crossed Extensor Reflex
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The crossed extensor reflex is a withdrawal reflex. -Bilateral withdrawal reflex -SINGLE STIMULUS (step on tack) -Activation hip + leg flexors (lifting limb away from painful stimuli) -Activation opposite side to shift weight to that leg |
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High Level Motor Control
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-Voluntary movement -What happens to reflexes if spinal cord is damaged? -Future cards |
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Sensory Neuron Injury
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-No sensations -Arefelexia, but can voluntarily move -No muscle atrophy |
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Lower Motor Neuron Syndrome
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-Arefelexia -Flaccid paralysis or paresis (weakness) -Muscle atrophy |
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Upper Motor Neuron Syndrome
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-Voluntary Paralysis: loss of conscious control -No muscle arophy -Hyperreflexia |
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2 Major pathways
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LATERAL PATHWAYS -Limb innervation for voluntary motor control VENTROMEDIAL PATHWAYS -Maintain posture MOTOR NEURONS -Medial = postural -Lateral = voluntary |
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Pyramidal System
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The corticospinal or pyramidal tract is a collection of axons that travel between the cerebral cortex of the brain and the spinal cord. -Voluntary movement initiated by pyramidal neurons (upper motor neurons) primary motor cortex AXON CHANGES NAME -Internal capsule, cerebral peduncle (midbrain), long fibers (pons), pyramids (medulla),, corticospinal tracts in spinal cord |
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Corticospinal Tracts
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ANTERIOR CORTICOSPINAL -Remains ipsilateral until cord innervates bilaterally -Posture muscles -Lateral damage = no clinical deficit LATERAL CORTICOSPINAL -Crosses in medulla -Fine motor control |
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Damage to Lateral Corticospinal Tract
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ABOVE MEDULLA -Deficit is on opposite side of damage BELOW MEDULLA -Deficit is on same side as damage LOSS OF RIFM'S -Rapid independent finger movements -Babinski Sign (toes curl up = bad) |
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Corticobulbar Tract
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The corticobulbar (or corticonuclear) tract is a white matter pathway connecting the cerebral cortex to the brainstem. -Function = innervates cranial nerve nuclei in brainstem -CN IX, X, XI, XII exit @ medulla -CN III + IV exit @ midbrain -CN V, VI + VII exit @ pons UMN innervates the cranial nerve nuclei bilaterally, damage results in NO clinical deficit ... other side compensates |
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Extrapyramidal System
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-Brainstem control of muscle activity -Rubrospinal = red nuclei -Tectospinal = tectum (midbrain superior+ inferior colliculi) -Vestibulospinal = vestibular apparatus in ear -Reticulospinal = reticular formation |
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Rubrospinal Tract
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-Function = innervates arm flexor Damage to the rubrospinal tract results in a very specific posture: DECEREBRATE (very bad clinical sign) |
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Postures
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-Decorticate Posture: damage above the red nucleus -Decerebrate Posture: damage below the red nucleus = BAD! |
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Tectospinal Tract
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In humans, the tectospinal tract (also known as colliculospinal tract) is a nerve pathway which coordinates head and eye movements. -Function: -Startle response: reflex adjustments to posture in response to auditory (inferior colliculus) or visual (superior colliculus) stimulus. |
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Vestibulospinal Tracts
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-Function: balance (righting reflex - correct movement) |
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Reticulospinal Tract
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-Function: modulation of postural muscles -Damage to medullary retuculospinal tract results in hyperreflexia and spasticity |
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Descending Motor Tracts
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-Rubrospinal -Tectospinal -Vestibulospinal -Reticulospinal -Medullary -Pontine |
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Hyperreflexia
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Hyperreflexia is defined as overactive or overresponsive reflexes. -Loss of inhibition from Medullary Reticulospinal tract |
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Spasticity
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Spasticity or muscular hypertonicity is a disorder of the central nervous system (CNS) in which certain muscles continually receive a message to tighten and contract. -Enhanced resistance to passive movement |
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Clonus
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Clonus (from the Greek for "violent, confused motion") is a series of involuntary muscular contractions due to sudden stretching of the muscle. -Rapidly alternating muscular contraction + relaxation |
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How does the Cerebellun contribute to movement?
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STATIC MOTOR ACTIVITY -Maintenance of upright position (balance + equilibrium) PHASIC MOTOR ACTIVITY -Postural Functions -Righting responses (vestibular apparatus, vestibulospinal) -Volitional Movements -Coordination and guidance of movements -Building motor plans MOTOR LEARNING |
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Cerebellum
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RECEIVES INFO FROM: -Spinocerebellar and Cuneocerebellar tracts (muscle info) -Vestibular nucleus (balance) -Cortex (via pons) -Olivary nucleus (learning) OUTPUT TO: -Red nucleus -Thalamus for relay to cortex (updating cortex) -Damage to the cerebellum results in motor deficits on the side of the damage |
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Intention Tremor
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Tremor upon initiation of motor activity -Ataxia: clumsiness -Dysmetria: inability to control distance, power and speed |
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Romberg's Sign
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Patient cannot maintain balance when standing with feet together and eyes closed |
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Ataxia
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Shaky and unsteady movement |
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Basal Ganglia
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Regulates starting and stopping, monitoring of movements -Magnitude and duration of movements 3 TELENCEPHALIC NUCLEI -Caudate -Putamen -Globus Pallidus DIENCEPHALIC NUCLEUS -Subthalamic nucleus MESENCEPHALIC NUCLEUS -Subsantia Nigra |
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Basal Ganglia
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RECEIVES INFO FROM: -Cerebral Cortex -Midbrain -Substantia nigra -Subthalamic nucleus OUTPUT TO: -Thalamus, then Cortex |
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Diseases of the Basal Ganglia
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-Parkinson's Disease -Huntington's Chorea |
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Parkinson's Disease
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CHARACTERIZED BY: -Resting tremors (as opposed to intention tremor seenin cerebellar lesions) -Mask-like facial expression -Flexed posture -Slowness TREATMENT -L-Dopa therapy, surgical ablation, nuclear stimulation, transplantation strategies |
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Huntington's Cholera
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CHARACTERIZED BY: -Movement dysfunctional -Dementia -Behavioral disturbances TREATMENT: -Behavioral -Anidepressants -Motor -GABA replacement -DA depletion + receptor blockage |
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Blood Supply and CSF
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Overview of blood supply and CSF in the brain |
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2 Sets of Arteries Supply the Brain
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2 INTERNAL CAROTID ARTERIES -1 for the left hemisphere -1 for the right hemisphere VERTEBRAL ARTERIES -2 vertebral arteries join to form 1 basilar artery |
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Circulation
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ANTERIOR CIRCULATION -From Internal Carotid POSTERIOR CIRCULATION -Vertebral Basilar |
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Circle of Willis
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The circle of Willis (also called the cerebral arterial circle, arterial circle of Willis or Willis Polygon) is a circle of arteries that supply blood to the brain. Connects the anterior and posterior circulation -Allows collateral flow between the 2 hemispheres PROBLEM -The territory of the Middle Cerebral Artery doesn't have collateral flow |
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3 Main Branches off the Circle of Willis
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-Supply the Cortex 3 BRANCHES -Anterior Cerebral Artery -Middle Cerebral Artery -Posterior Cerebral Artery |
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Types of Stroke
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A stroke results from insufficient blood supply to the brain TYPES -Thrombotic "clot" -Hemorrhagic "bleeding to the brain" |
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Aneurysms
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-Congenital, not related to hypertension -Rupture is the most common cause of the subarachnoid hemorrhage -90% are found in the Circle of Willis |
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Microaneurysms
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Charcot-Bouchard aneurysms (also known as miliary aneurysms or microaneurysms) are aneurysms of the brain vasculature which occur in small blood vessels (less than 300 micrometre diameter). -Develop in small arteries -Due to hypertension -Most common cause of hemorrhage -Common cause of vascular dementia |
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Ventricles and Cerebrospinal Fluid
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-Meninges: protective covering of the brain + spinal cord -Ventricles: fluid filled cavities filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) -CSF: delivers nutrients to the brain and removes waste from the brain |
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Cranial Meninges
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3 LAYERS -Dura mater = outermost, toughest, provides physical support to brain/vessels -Arachniod mater = middle, blood vessels in CSF filled subarachnoid space -Pia mater = innermost, single cell layer against tissue, follows all sulci and gyri |
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Dural Septa
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Divide up the brain, help support the weight of the cerebrum -Falx Cerebri: separates the 2 cerebral hemispheres -Tentorium Cerebellum: separates cerebellum and cerebrum |
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Dural Sinus
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Venous filled cavities that CSF drains into |
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Subdural Hematoma
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Tearing of the veins entering dural sinuses -Type of tr |
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What is Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)?
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-Clear ultra low protein filtrate from plasma -Contains both nutrients and waste -Brain lacks a lymphatic system -Ion and glucose levels tightly regulated -Brain not subject to variations seen in blood -Total Volume in ventricles and subarachnoid space = 150ml; 500ml/day made; therefore turns over about 3X/day Produced within the ventricles by tissue called CHOROID PLEXUS -secrete CSF, remove waste, adjust CSF composition |
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Choroid Plexus Ependymal Cells
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Nutrients are excreted from the plasma by these specialized cells |
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Ventricular System in the Brain
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Ventricles 1 + 2 are called "lateral ventricles" - buried under cerebral cortex -3rd ventricle between the left and right thalamus -4th ventricle between the pons and cerebellum |
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CSF Circulation
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1.Produced by ventricles by choroid plexus 2.Passes through ventricles 3.Leaves ventricles to subarachnoid space surrounding the brain and spinal cord 4.Returns to venous system at arachnoid granulations that drain CSF into dural sinuses, primarily superior sagittal sinus |
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Problems in CSF Circulation
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-Overproduction: choroid plexus tumors ... rare -Blockage of Circulation: tumors, developmental malformations, scarring due to traumatic injury, damage to arachnoid granulations -Hemorrhage -Trauma -Meningitis |
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Hydrocephalus
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"Water in the brain" -More severe in adults because the skull is solid |
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Spinal Cord Meninges
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Epidural space between dura and bone- fat cushions, vessels, -Site of anesthesia adminisration |
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Spinal Tap
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Lumbar Puncture -Used to obtain CSF samples for analysis PROCEDURE -Needle is inserted between L4 + L5 vertebrae No spinal cord at this level, only roots |
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Bacterial Meningitis
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Meningitis is inflammation of the protective membranes covering the brain and spinal cord, known collectively as the meninges. Headache, fever + stiff neck -Considerable increased ICP, cloudy appearance, decreased glucose level |
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Visual System
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The visual system is the part of the central nervous system which enables organisms to see. Overview |
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Frontal Eye Fields
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-Frontal eye fields and eye muscles ensure images are focused in the retina - 3 CRANIAL NERVES 1.Oculomotor : III 2.Trochlear: IV 3.Abducens: VI |
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Strabismus
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-Misalignment of the eyes *Not lazy eye -In KIDS will lead to loss of depth and motion perception -In ADULTS will lead to diplopia = double vision -Things look fuzzy -Bump into things |
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External Eye Structures
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-Eyelids and eyelashes *Protection -Lacrimal gland *Produces tears |
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Dry Eyes
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Leading cause of undiagnosed vision problems |
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Conjunctiva
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Membranes that cover the inner surface of eyelids and the outer surface of the eye -Conjunctivitis: inflammation of the conjunctiva "pink eye" *Infection of the conjunctiva that results in blood vessels inflammation |
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Inside of the Eye
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Fibrous Tunic: Outer eye (strong CT) -Sclera -Cornea Vascular Tunic: Middle layer (more blood) -Choroid *Iris -Ciliary body Neural Tunic: Innermost layer -Retina |
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Fibrous Tunic
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Fibrous tunic = Sclera + Cornea (Outer layer) -Sclera (CT) *White of the eye, helps give eye shape -Cornea (avascular) *Provides most focusing of eye *Most common organ transplant |
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Astigmatism
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An optical system with astigmatism is one where rays that propagate in two perpendicular planes have different foci. -Misshaped cornea results in blurry vision |
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Vascular Tunic
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Vascular Tunic = Iris + Ciliary body + Choroid -Iris *Colored part *Muscles that regulate the amount of light that enters the eye through the pupil -Ciliary Body (Produces aqueous humor) *Muscle controls tension on lens (to focus image) *The lens changes shape for near and far focusing -Choroid *Vascular layer, contains melanocytes to absorb light |
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Aqueous Humor
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The aqueous humour is a thick watery substance filling the space between the lens and the cornea. -CSF like liquid that provides nutrients to the cornea |
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Lens
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-Presbyopia: age related decline in near and far focusing "old eyes" -Cataracts: #1 cause of blindness worldwide "cloudy lens" *Treatment: put in a new lens to fix |
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Glaucoma
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Glaucoma is a disease that affects the optic nerve and involves loss of retinal ganglion cells in a characteristic pattern. Accumulation of aqueous humor -#1 cause of blindness worldwide -Fluid builds up and pushes against the cornea and goes backwards and pushes on blood vessels supplying blood to cornea + retina + they die |
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Vitreous Humor
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The vitreous humour (British spelling) or vitreous humor (US spelling) is the clear gel that fills the space between the lens and the retina of the eyeball of humans and other vertebrates. -Floater: harmless, breakdown products of vitreous humor -Flashers: a serious problem that often indicates retinal detachment |
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Sensory Tunic
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Sensory tunic = Retina -Retina *Contains light sensitive neurons called photoreceptors -Optic Nerve *Axons of projection neurons that for the optic nerve (CN II) |
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Optic Disc
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The optic disc or optic nerve head is the location where ganglion cell axons exit the eye to form the optic nerve. -Where optic nerve forms -Lacks photoreceptors *Blind Spot |
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Fovea/Macula
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Retinal area with sharpest vision -Greatest density of photoreceptors (cones = color vision) -Red, Blue, Green make white matter in the visual system |
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Macular Degeneration
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Age related macular degeneration is a medical condition which usually affects older adults that results in a loss of vision in the center of the visual field (the macula) because of damage to the retina. -Fovea = critical for acute vision -Lose central vision and gets worse over time |
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How is light converted to a neural signal?
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-Choroid absorbs light and presents it to photoreceptors *Large blood supply |
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Photoreceptors
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-Rods *Very sensitive, rhodopsin pigment *Sensitive to blue light (black/white vision) -Cones *High acuity *Color vision using 3 photopigments -Red, Blue, Green |
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Photopigments
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Photopigments are unstable pigments that undergo a chemical change when they absorb light. -Rhodopsin: opsin + retinal (Red, Blue, Green) *Without you are color blind -Night Blindness: results from deficiency of Vitamin A -Retinitis Pigmenosa (RP) *Most common inherited visual abnormality *Visual receptors gradually deteriorate *Blindness eventually results |
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Physiology of Vision
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The visual system works "backwards" ... it is active in the dark -Eyes open = not making neurotransmitter -Eyes closed = actively making neurotransmitter *Blinking as well as when sleeping |
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Retina
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The vertebrate retina is a light sensitive tissue lining the inner surface of the eye. -The output of the retina is very simple ... DOTS *Retina sees nothing more than dots *Cares what color dots are in the middle and which ones are on the periphery |
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Interneurons
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2 interneurons help create the dots 1.Horizontal Cells: coarse adjustment 2.Amacrine Cells: fine adjustment 3.Ganglion Cells: retinal projection neuron |
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Color Blindness
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-Opsins are transmembrane proteins -Opsin genes are located on X chromosome -Females are carriers, males are color blind *Females cannot be colorblind |
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Visual Pathway
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Monocular Vision -Part of visual space seen only by one eye (blue +yellow area) Binocular Vision -Part of visual space seen by both eyes (green area) Retinal ganglion cell axons form the optic nerve (CN II) |
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Retinal Axons Synapse in 2 Locations
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1.Lateral geniculate nucleus of thalamus = what/where 2.Superior colliculus of brainstem = tracking of objects |
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Optic Radiation
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Axons of lateral geniculate neurons projecting to visual cortex in occipital lobe |
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Meyer's Loop
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What happens when a person has a stroke? - Some lose upper visual system ... not a big deal just can't look up -Some lose lower visual system ... very big deal because that's how we walk without looking down and watching the ground |
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Primary Visual Cortex
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Only sees lines -Just see lines on a stop sign *Other visual information is processed outside the primary visual cortex (aka. making sense of what the lines are as well as interpreting the lines) |
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Prosopagnosia
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Inability to recognize faces -Temporal lobe par it (allows for face recognition) |
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Auditory and Vestibular System
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Overview of the hearing and smelling systems |
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Anatomy of the Ear
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-External ear: sound collection -Middle ear: sound amplification (3 smallest bones in body) -Inner ear: sound detection (cochlea) + balance (vestibular apparatus) |
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External Ear
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-Auricle: (Pinna) *Provides directional sensitivity -External Acoustic Canal *Ends at tympanic membrane (eardrum) *Ceruminous glands secrete waxy substance called CERUMEN -Tympanic Membrane *A thin semitransparent sheet *Separates external ear from middle ear |
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Middle Ear
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Also called tympanic cavity Auditory Ossicles (3 smallest bones in the body) -Malleus (hammer), Incus (anvil), Stapes (stirrup) -Malleus attached to tympanic membrane -Stapes attached to oval window of cochlea 2 Smallest Muscles in Body -Tensor Tympani: stiffens tympanic membrane -Stapedius: reduces movement of stapes at oval window Eustachian Tube: equalizes pressure in middle ear |
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Inner Ear
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-Vestibule: equilibrium -Semicircular Canals: equilibrium -Cochlea: auditory |
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