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Universities » University of Detroit Mercy (UDM.. » BIO - Biology » 2550 - Principles Of Human Physi.. » Flash Cards

Exam 1 - Flashcards

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Class:BIO 2550 - Principles Of Human Physiology
Subject:Biology
University:University of Detroit Mercy
Term:Winter 2010
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Anatomy the study of the structure and shape of the body and its parts
Physiology the study of how the body and its parts work or function
Metabolism all chemical reactions that occur within body cells Breakdown and building of essential substances by cells, production and use of energy rich molecules to power cellular
Excretion process of removing wastes from the body. Digestive and urinary systems rid the body of these wastes.
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Reproduction can occur on the cellular or organismal level
Growth increase in size and cellularity Cell constructing activities must happen faster than cell destroying activities
Nutrients food for energy and cell building (proteins, fats, minerals, and vitamins)
Oxygen required in all chemical reactions that release energy from food
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Water 60-80% of body weight, most abundant chemical substance in the body
Temperature around 98F (37C). Too low = slowing of metabolism, too high = chemical reactions happen faster, proteins begin to break down
Atmospheric pressure breathing and exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide depend on appropriate atmospheric pressure
Receptor a sensor that monitors and responds to changes in the environment responds to “stimuli” by sending information to
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Control Center determines the level at which a variable is to be maintained analyzes information and determines appropriate response
Effector provides the means for the control center response (output) to stimulus results of this response feed back to influence the stimulus negati
Intracellular control homeostatic mechanisms operating within the cell Regulation of functions often by enzymes and genes
Intrinsic control mechanisms operate at the tissue and organ levels Often make use of chemical signals Ex: prostaglandins are sent as signals to nearby cells when heart muscle is
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Extrinsic control outside control that operates at the system and organismal level Usually involves nervous and endocrine regulation
Matter has mass and occupies space, can be seen, smelled, and felt
Solids definite shape and volume: bones, teeth
Liquids definite volume: blood, plasma
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Gasses no definite shape or volume: air we breath
Physically does not alter the basic nature of the substance (water to ice, cutting into smaller pieces)
Chemically alters the composition of a substance (fermentation, digestion)
Energy massless and does not take up space, measured by its effects on matter
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Kinetic energy doing work or putting matter into motion
Potential energy inactive or stored energy
Chemical energy stored in the bonds of chemical substances, when broken stored (potential) energy is released and becomes kinetic energy
Electrical energy the movement of charged particles (electrical, nerve impulses, ion movement)
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Mechanical energy directly involved in moving matter
Radiant energy travels in waves (visible light, radio, ultraviolet)
Elements cannot be broken down into simpler substances – composed of atoms “atom” from greek word meaning incapable of being divided
Proton positive charge- 1 amu
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Neutron uncharged- 1 amu
Electron negative charge small compared to protons or neutrons yet have a strong negative charge
Electrical charge the ability of an atom to attract or repel other charged atoms
Atomic number equal to the number of protons in each element
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Atomic mass sum of masses of protons and neutrons in nucleus
Atomic weight isotopes of each element – variations in the neutron content (have same atomic number but different atomic mass)
Radioisotopes heavier isotopes are unstable and tend to spontaneously decompose – “radioactivity
Molecules when two or more of the same element combine chemically H (atom) + H (atom) H2 (molecule)
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Compound when two or more different elements combine together Na + Cl NaCl (metal + gas 
Valence shell an atom’s outermost shell – contains the electrons capable of interacting with other atoms
Ionic bonds electrons are completely transferred from one atom to another
Covalent bonds electrons are shared between two atoms
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Hydrogen bonds weak bonds between a hydrogen atom and nitrogen or oxygen atom common between water molecules – polar molecule intramolecular bonds – help to maintain protein structures
Synthesis reactions two or more atoms combine to form a more complex compound Involve bond formation Energy-absorbing reactions Are part of all anabolic reactions in cells Important in gr
Decomposition reactions a molecule is broken down into smaller molecules or atoms Bonds are broken Chemical energy is released Underlie catabolic processes in cells Digestion, breakdown of gl
Exchange reactions both synthesis and decomposition of bonds A switch between molecule parts Most are reversible ATP ADP reaction
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Factors influencing chemical reactions Temperature Concentration of reacting particles Particle size Presence of catalysts
Inorganic Compounds small, simple molecules that lack carbon Water, salts, acids, and bases
 most abundant inorganic compound in the body High heat capacity Universal solvent, acts as a transport and exchange medium in body Chemical reactivity in hydrolysis reac
Salts Ionic compounds containing cations and anions Common in the body (calcium and phosphorus) easily dissociate into their ions Vital to body functions (nerve impulses, Ir
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Acids A substance that can release hydrogen ions (H+) “proton donors” Acids that ionize completely and lose protons are strong acids 
Bases Can accept hydrogen ions, are considered “proton acceptors” Hydroxides are common inorganic bases – hydroxyl ion (OH-) is released Na
pH the relative amount of hydrogen (H+) and hydroxyl (OH-) ions in various body fluids
Organic Compounds carbon-containing, large covalently bound molecules carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids
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Carbohydrates sugars and starches – contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
Monosaccharides “one sugar” Glucose – blood sugar, universal cellular fuel Fructose and galactose – converted to glucose Ribose and deoxyribose – building blocks of
Disaccharides “two sugars”- two sugars joined through dehydration synthesis Sucrose – cane sugar Lactose – found in milk Maltose – malt sugar
Polysaccharides long chains of simple sugars easily stored – examples = Starch and Glycogen
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Lipids large compounds that enter the body in fat, egg yolks, milk products, and oils Three types: Triglycerides Phospholipids Steroids
Triglycerides-neutral fats Major source of stored energy in the body – Glycerol combined with 3 fatty acid chains Single covalent bonds between carbons in fatty acid chains = “saturated” Solid at
Phospholipids Phosphorus containing head group takes place of one of the fatty acid chains This head group is charged, gives polarity Polar head group interacts with water and ions “h
Steroids Made up of hydrogen, carbon, and oxygen, and are largely fat soluble
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Cholesterol most important steroid molecule essential for human life found in cell membranes backbone for making Vitamin D, steroid hormones, and bile salts Sex hormones essent
Proteins Account for over 50% of the organic matter of the body Construction materials for tissues and organs Cell functions
Amino Acids 20 common varieties of amino acids all have an amine group (NH2) to give basic properties all have acid group (COOH) for acidic properties identical except for the
Fibrous proteins structural Important for binding and strength of tissues
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Collagen bones, cartilage, tendons
Keratin hair, nails, and skin
Globular proteins – mobile, functional Play roles in almost all biological processes
Nucleic Acids Make up genes which provide the blueprint of each organism (DNA, RNA) Composed of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, phosphorus Largest biological molecules of the body
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Nucleotides nitrogen containing base
Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) Genetic material found in every cell nucleus Replicates itself exactly before every cell divides Provides instruction for building every protein in the body lon
Ribonucleic Acid (RNA) located outside the nucleus carries out directions from DNA for protein synthesis single chain of nucleotides bases used are ACUG three varieties: messenger (m
Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) Provides chemical energy usable by all cells in the body Adenine base, ribose sugar, and three phosphate groups Contains high energy phosphate bonds that w
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Membrane Transport the means by which substances get through the plasma membrane
Solution a homogenous mixture of two or more components (air, seawater)
Solvent the substance present in the largest amount (dissolving medium) Water is the bodies chief solvent
Solutes components or substances present in smaller amounts, tiny, do not settle out
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Intracellular fluid – (nucleoplasm and cytosol) solution containing small amounts of gases, nutrients, salts, all dissolved in water
Interstitial fluid fluid that continuously bathes the exterior of cells Contains thousands of ingredients (nutrients, hormones, salts, waste products) Each cell must extract from the int
Selective permeability a barrier that allows some substances to pass through while excluding others Nutrients in – wastes out
Passive transport transport of substances across membrane without energy input from cell
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Active transport cell provides metabolic energy (ATP) that drives transport
Diffusion molecules move away from a region where they are more concentrated to a region where they are less concentrated important in every cell in the body kinetic energy poss
Simple Diffusion unassisted diffusion of solutes through the plasma membrane Either lipid-soluble or small enough to fit through pores
Osmosis diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane Passes through specialized pores called aquaporins Occurring all the time as water moves down its concentrati
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Osmotic Pressure increased water pressure that develops due to influx of water
Isotonic two fluids that have the same osmotic pressure
Hypertonic the fluid with higher osmotic pressure and higher impermeable solutes
Hypotonic the fluid with lower osmotic pressure and lower impermeable solutes
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Facilitated Diffusion provides passage for certain substances (glucose) that are lipid-insoluble and too large to pass through pores Molecules move down concentration gradients but a protein 
Channel-mediated membrane channels or pores where water, small molecules, or ions can pass – sodium or chloride channels, aquaporins
Carrier-mediated molecules move down their concentration gradients with the help of a membrane carrier
Active Transport Process Cell uses ATP to move substances across membrane Substances usually too large to passively transport across, cannot dissolve into fat, have to move against concentration 
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Active Transport requires protein carriers that combine with substances to transport them across the membrane
Solute Pumps Uses ATP to energize its protein carriers
Sodium-Potassium Pump carries Sodium ions out of and Potassium ions into the cells
Calcium Pump in membranes of muscle cells particularly – can force nearly all of the intracellular calcium ions into special compartments
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Vesicular Transport moves substances into or out of cells without crossing plasma membrane
Exocytosis moves substances out of the cell Way by which cells actively secrete hormones, mucus, or eject wastes Product is first packaged into small vesicle or sac The sac migrates to plasma membrane and fuses Fused area ruptures spilling contents of sac
Endocytosis ATP-requiring processes that take-up or engulf extracellular substances by enclosing them in small vesicles Once vesicle is formed it detaches from membrane and fuses with a lysosome in cytoplasm, contents are then digested
Receptor-mediated Endocytosis main cellular mechanism for taking up target molecules Plasma membrane receptor binds only with certain substances Receptors and attached target molecule are internalized in vesicle Selective- enzymes, hormones, cholesterol, iron
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Phagocytosis cell-eating White blood cells and professional phagocytes scavenge cells and ingest bacteria or foreign debris Protective mechanism
Pinocytosis cell drinking Gulps droplets of extracellular fluid (may contain dissolved proteins or fats) Routine activity of most cells
Active Site portion of the enzyme that chemically fits the substrate molecule
Hydrolases
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Oxidases, hydrogenases, and dehydrogenases Oxidation-reduction enzymes energy release for muscle contraction depends on these
Phosphorylating enzymes – add or remove phosphate groups to molecules
carboxylases or decarboxylases Enzymes that add or remove carbon dioxide
Enzymes that rearrange atoms within a molecule
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 Anatomythe study of the structure and shape of the body and its parts
 Physiology the study of how the body and its parts work or function
 Metabolismall chemical reactions that occur within body cells
Breakdown and building of essential substances by cells, production and use of energy rich molecules to power cellular
 Excretion process of removing wastes from the body. Digestive and urinary systems rid the body of these wastes.

 Reproduction can occur on the cellular or organismal level
 Growthincrease in size and cellularity
Cell constructing activities must happen faster than cell destroying activities
 Nutrientsfood for energy and cell building (proteins, fats, minerals, and vitamins)
 Oxygenrequired in all chemical reactions that release energy from food
 Water60-80% of body weight, most abundant chemical substance in the body
 Temperaturearound 98F (37C). Too low = slowing of metabolism, too high = chemical reactions happen faster, proteins begin to break down
 Atmospheric pressurebreathing and exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide depend on appropriate atmospheric pressure
 Receptora sensor that monitors and responds to changes in the environment responds to “stimuli” by sending information to
 Control Centerdetermines the level at which a variable is to be maintained
analyzes information and determines appropriate response
 Effectorprovides the means for the control center response (output) to stimulus
results of this response feed back to influence the stimulus
negati
 Intracellular control homeostatic mechanisms operating within the cell
Regulation of functions often by enzymes and genes
 Intrinsic control mechanisms operate at the tissue and organ levels
Often make use of chemical signals
Ex: prostaglandins are sent as signals to
nearby cells
when heart muscle is
 Extrinsic control outside control that operates at the system and organismal level
Usually involves nervous and endocrine regulation
 Matterhas mass and occupies space, can be seen, smelled, and felt
 Solidsdefinite shape and volume: bones, teeth
 Liquidsdefinite volume: blood, plasma
 Gassesno definite shape or volume: air we breath
 Physically does not alter the basic nature of the substance (water to ice, cutting into smaller pieces)
 Chemicallyalters the composition of a substance (fermentation, digestion)
 Energymassless and does not take up space, measured by its effects on matter
 Kinetic energydoing work or putting matter into motion
 Potential energyinactive or stored energy
 Chemical energystored in the bonds of chemical substances, when broken stored (potential) energy is released and becomes kinetic energy
 Electrical energythe movement of charged particles (electrical, nerve impulses, ion movement)
 Mechanical energydirectly involved in moving matter
 Radiant energytravels in waves (visible light, radio, ultraviolet)
 Elementscannot be broken down into simpler substances – composed of atoms
“atom” from greek word meaning incapable of being divided
 Protonpositive charge- 1 amu
 Neutronuncharged- 1 amu
 Electron negative charge small compared to protons or neutrons yet have a strong negative charge
 Electrical chargethe ability of an atom to attract or repel other charged atoms
 Atomic numberequal to the number of protons in each element
 Atomic masssum of masses of protons and neutrons in nucleus
 Atomic weightisotopes of each element – variations in the neutron content
(have same atomic number but different atomic mass)
 Radioisotopesheavier isotopes are unstable and tend to spontaneously decompose – “radioactivity
 Moleculeswhen two or more of the same element combine chemically

H (atom) + H (atom) H2 (molecule)
 Compoundwhen two or more different elements combine together

Na + Cl NaCl
(metal + gas 
 Valence shellan atom’s outermost shell – contains the electrons capable of interacting with other atoms
 Ionic bondselectrons are completely transferred from one atom to another
 Covalent bondselectrons are shared between two atoms
 Hydrogen bondsweak bonds between a hydrogen atom and nitrogen or oxygen atom
common between water molecules – polar molecule
intramolecular bonds – help to maintain protein structures
 Synthesis reactionstwo or more atoms combine to form a more complex compound

Involve bond formation
Energy-absorbing reactions
Are part of all anabolic reactions in cells
Important in gr
 Decomposition reactionsa molecule is broken down into smaller molecules or atoms

Bonds are broken
Chemical energy is released
Underlie catabolic processes in cells
Digestion, breakdown of gl
 Exchange reactionsboth synthesis and decomposition of bonds

A switch between molecule parts
Most are reversible
ATP ADP reaction

 Factors influencing chemical reactions Temperature
Concentration of reacting particles
Particle size
Presence of catalysts
 Inorganic Compoundssmall, simple molecules that lack carbon
Water, salts, acids, and bases
  most abundant inorganic compound in the body
High heat capacity
Universal solvent, acts as a transport and exchange medium in body
Chemical reactivity in hydrolysis reac
 Salts Ionic compounds containing cations and anions

Common in the body (calcium and phosphorus)
easily dissociate into their ions
Vital to body functions (nerve impulses, Ir
  AcidsA substance that can release hydrogen ions (H+) “proton donors”

Acids that ionize completely and lose protons are strong acids


 Bases Can accept hydrogen ions, are considered “proton acceptors”

Hydroxides are common inorganic bases – hydroxyl ion (OH-) is released

Na
 pHthe relative amount of hydrogen (H+) and hydroxyl (OH-) ions in various body fluids
 Organic Compoundscarbon-containing, large covalently bound molecules
carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids
 Carbohydratessugars and starches – contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
 Monosaccharides“one sugar”
Glucose – blood sugar, universal cellular fuel Fructose and galactose – converted to glucose
Ribose and deoxyribose – building blocks of
 Disaccharides“two sugars”- two sugars joined through dehydration synthesis
Sucrose – cane sugar
Lactose – found in milk
Maltose – malt sugar

 Polysaccharideslong chains of simple sugars
easily stored – examples = Starch and Glycogen

 Lipidslarge compounds that enter the body in fat, egg yolks, milk products, and oils
Three types:
Triglycerides
Phospholipids
Steroids
 Triglycerides-neutral fats Major source of stored energy in the body – Glycerol combined with 3 fatty acid chains

Single covalent bonds between carbons in fatty acid chains = “saturated”
Solid at
 Phospholipids Phosphorus containing head group takes place of one of the fatty acid chains

This head group is charged, gives polarity

Polar head group interacts with water and ions “h
 Steroids Made up of hydrogen, carbon, and oxygen, and are largely fat soluble
 Cholesterolmost important steroid molecule
essential for human life
found in cell membranes
backbone for making Vitamin D, steroid hormones, and bile salts
Sex hormones essent
 Proteins Account for over 50% of the organic matter of the body
Construction materials for tissues and organs
Cell functions
 Amino Acids 20 common varieties of amino acids
all have an amine group (NH2) to give basic properties
all have acid group (COOH) for acidic properties
identical except for the
 Fibrous proteins structural
Important for binding and strength of tissues
 Collagenbones, cartilage, tendons
 Keratinhair, nails, and skin
 Globular proteins – mobile, functional
Play roles in almost all biological processes
 Nucleic Acids Make up genes which provide the blueprint of each organism (DNA, RNA)

Composed of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, phosphorus

Largest biological molecules of the body
 Nucleotidesnitrogen containing base
 Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) Genetic material found in every cell nucleus
Replicates itself exactly before every cell
divides
Provides instruction for building every protein
in the body
lon
 Ribonucleic Acid (RNA) located outside the nucleus
carries out directions from DNA for protein
synthesis
single chain of nucleotides
bases used are ACUG
three varieties: messenger (m
 Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) Provides chemical energy usable by all
cells in the body

Adenine base, ribose sugar, and three
phosphate groups

Contains high energy phosphate bonds
that w
 Membrane Transport the means by which substances get through the plasma membrane
 Solution a homogenous mixture of two or more components (air, seawater)
 Solvent the substance present in the largest amount (dissolving medium)
Water is the bodies chief solvent
 Solutescomponents or substances present in smaller amounts, tiny, do not settle out
 Intracellular fluid – (nucleoplasm and cytosol) solution containing small amounts of gases, nutrients, salts, all dissolved in water
 Interstitial fluid fluid that continuously bathes the exterior of cells
Contains thousands of ingredients (nutrients, hormones, salts, waste products)
Each cell must extract from the int
 Selective permeability a barrier that allows some substances to pass through while excluding others
Nutrients in – wastes out
 Passive transport transport of substances across membrane without energy input from cell
 Active transport cell provides metabolic energy (ATP) that drives transport
 Diffusionmolecules move away from a region where they are more concentrated to a region where they are less concentrated
important in every cell in the body
kinetic energy poss
 Simple Diffusion unassisted diffusion of solutes through the plasma membrane
Either lipid-soluble or small enough to fit through pores
 Osmosisdiffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane
Passes through specialized pores called aquaporins
Occurring all the time as water moves down its concentrati
 Osmotic Pressureincreased water pressure that develops due to influx of water
 Isotonic two fluids that have the same osmotic pressure
 Hypertonic the fluid with higher osmotic pressure and higher impermeable solutes
 Hypotonicthe fluid with lower osmotic pressure and lower impermeable solutes
 Facilitated Diffusion provides passage for certain substances (glucose) that are lipid-insoluble and too large to pass through pores Molecules move down concentration gradients but a protein 
 Channel-mediated membrane channels or pores where water, small molecules, or ions can pass – sodium or chloride channels, aquaporins
 Carrier-mediated molecules move down their concentration gradients with the help of a membrane carrier
 Active Transport ProcessCell uses ATP to move substances across membrane Substances usually too large to passively transport across, cannot dissolve into fat, have to move against concentration 
 Active Transport requires protein carriers that combine with substances to transport them across the membrane
 Solute PumpsUses ATP to energize its protein carriers
 Sodium-Potassium Pump carries Sodium ions out of and Potassium ions
into the cells
 Calcium Pump in membranes of muscle cells particularly – can force nearly all of the intracellular calcium ions into special compartments
 Vesicular Transport moves substances into or out of cells without crossing plasma membrane
 Exocytosis moves substances out of the cell
Way by which cells actively secrete hormones, mucus, or eject wastes
Product is first packaged into small vesicle or sac
The sac migrates to plasma membrane and fuses Fused area ruptures spilling contents of sac
 EndocytosisATP-requiring processes that take-up or engulf extracellular substances by enclosing them in small vesicles
Once vesicle is formed it detaches from membrane and fuses with a lysosome in cytoplasm, contents are then digested
 Receptor-mediated Endocytosis main cellular mechanism for taking up target molecules
Plasma membrane receptor binds only with certain substances
Receptors and attached target molecule are internalized in vesicle
Selective- enzymes, hormones, cholesterol, iron
 Phagocytosiscell-eating
White blood cells and professional phagocytes scavenge cells and ingest bacteria or foreign debris
Protective mechanism
 Pinocytosiscell drinking
Gulps droplets of extracellular fluid (may contain dissolved proteins or fats)
Routine activity of most cells
 Active Site portion of the enzyme that chemically fits the substrate molecule
 Hydrolases  
 Oxidases, hydrogenases, and dehydrogenases Oxidation-reduction enzymes
energy release for muscle contraction depends on these
  Phosphorylating enzymes – add or remove phosphate groups to molecules
 carboxylases or decarboxylases Enzymes that add or remove carbon dioxide
  Enzymes that rearrange atoms within a molecule
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