Chapters 5 and 8 - Flashcards

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INCORRECT CORRECT

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Ludwig Boltzmann

Matter is composed of atoms, behavior of atoms accounts for chemical reactions

Positivism- only basis for true knowledge was what is observered

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Thermodynamics

Relationships among different forms of energy

In chemical process, there is a transformation of energy.

Tells us which direction a reaction process occurs

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Kinetics

The study of motion

The rate of a chemical reaction

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What is work?

The movement of an object against force w= F x D

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Potential Energy

Stored Energy

Present in chemical bonds of a molecule

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Kinetic Energy

Energy in motion

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What is heat?

Fast moving objects

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1st Law of Thermodynamics

• Energy can't be created nor destroyed
  
• Energy can be transformed
• Total amount of energy in any process is constant
• Quantity of energy

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2nd Law of Thermodynamics

• In any spontaneous process, the energy available to do work decreases
  
• In spontaneous reactions proceed toward disorder (entropy)
• Quality of Energy

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calorie

The amount needed to raise one gram of water to one degree celsius

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Calorie

1000 calories= 1 kcal

1000g of water raised up 1 degree celsius or 1g of water raised 1000 degrees celsius

Average student requires 2,000 to 3,000 a day

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Free Energy

Energy available to do work in a system or a molecule (Potential energy)

Symbol- G

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Exergonic

Releasing energy in the form of work

ATP + H2O --> ADP + Pi + heat

Free energy decreases

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Endergonic

Absorbing or input of energy and it is not spontaneous

ADP + Pi --> ATP

Free energy increases

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High Energy Bonds

Unstable chemical bonds that give up energy easily

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Entropy

A formal measure of disorder, has a high value when objects are disordered or distributed at random and a low value when they are in order

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Two factors that determine whether or not a reaction occurs?

1. Energy, more individual bonds it has
2. Concentration

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Equilibrium

When the rate of a forward reaction is equal to the rate of the reverse reaction

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Two factors determine the # of molecules in a space that will react

1. Temperature
2. The height of the activation energy

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Catalyst

A substance that lowers the activation energy of a reaction but it's not consumed or changed in the reaction

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Active Site

The groove or "cleft" on an enzyme's surface which binds to the substrate molecule

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Activation Energy

The binding of the enzymes lowers the this energy

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Three types of weak noncovalent bonds does a substrate temporarily bind to?

• Hydrogen
• Ionic
• Hydrophobic

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What two ways must the substrate and active site be complementary?

Shape and chemical nature

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Transition State

The temporary strained form of the substrate

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Four factors which the rate of an enzyme catalyzed reaction is dependent on?

1. Temperature
2. Concentration of substrate
3. pH
4. Concentration of enzyme

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Enzyme Denaturation

Loses it's shape and no longer accepts the substrate and it won't function

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Anabolism

Two small molecules to form a large molecule

Endergonic

A + B--> C

Accepts two substrates

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Catabolism

Breaking a large molecule into two small ones. 

Exergonic

C--> A + B

Accepts one substrate

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Four reasons why networks of biochemical reactions in organisms are complex

1. Complex transformations by steps
2. Couple endergonic and exergonic reactions
3. Releases small amounts of energy for the cell to capture
4. Generating useful intermediate products

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Inhibitors

Something that restrains, blocks, or suppresses.

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Steric (competitive) Inhibitor

• Slows down the process of enzyme + substrate
  
• They are competing for the active site
  
• Similar in shape and chemical nature
  
• Reversible
  
• Overcome by adding more substrate or eliminating inhibitors
• If it is a high ratio then the enzyme is inactive
• Low ratio the enzyme is active

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Allosteric (noncompetitive) Inhibitor

Goes into the allosteric site, denaturing the enzyme, not allowing substrate into the active site

• Poisons, nerve gases, heavy metals, penicillin, insecticides

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Henrietta Lack

Cervical Cancer, first human cells to be successfully cultured

HeLa Cells

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HeLa Cells

Used for Polio virus vaccine

Genetic engineering

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How many cells are in a adult human?

10 trillion or 10^13

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How many new cells form in about 5 minutes?

1 billion or 10^9

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Cell Division in a unicellular organism

Asexual reproduction- produces 2 individuals

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Cell division to a multicellular organism

Replace worn out cells or damaged cells

Growth

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Cell division to a Zygote?

Embryonic development 

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Meiosis

Sexual reproduction; egg and sperm formed from testes and ovary

Reduces number of chromosomes from diploid to haploid

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Gametes

Sperm and Egg

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Somatic Cells

Zygote, embryo, fetus, child, adult

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Diploid Cells 2n

Testes, ovary, zygote,embryo, fetus, child, adult

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Haploid n

Sperm and Egg

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Mitosis

Zygote to Adult

Maintains diploid number of chromosomes

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Fertilization

Restores the diploid number of chromosomes from two haploid gametes.

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Walther Flemming

First biologist to describe the behavior of chromosomes during mitosis.

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August Weismann

Insisted that the nucleus contains the hereditary information

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3 tasks accomplished by cell division

1. DNA replication
2. Equal distribution of the duplicated DNA to the two daugther cells
3. The division of the rest of the cell contains; cytokinesis

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3 M's of cell division

1. Materials- small molecules that are used for energy or building blocks to make  macromolecules
2. Machinery- macromolecules and organelles for cell division
3. Memory- encoded info in DNA

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Binary Fission

Division of prokaryotic bacteria

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Total Chromosomes

• Human 46
• Fruit Flies 8
• Corn 20
• Pea Plants 14

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Total homologous pairs

• Human 23
• Fruit flies 4
• Corn 10
• Pea Plants 7

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Homologous Chromosomes

Pairs of matching chromosomes; similar types of genes, one from mom one from dad

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Homolog

Each member of the homologous pair

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3 Major Stages in the Cell Cycle

1. Mitosis- division of the nucleus
2. Cytokinesis- division of the cytoplasm and formation of two plasma membranes
3. Interphase- DNA replication and cell growth

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M phase

Mitosis and Cytokinesis

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G1

The "gap" or growth phase, completion of M and the beginning of DNA synthesis

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S

Period of DNA synthesis, when a cell copies its chromosomes

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G2

Growth and preparation for division

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Centrioles

Forms the mitotic spindle apparatus and aster rays

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Kinetichore

A specialized disc-shaped structure to which attach the microtubules of the mitotic spindle.

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Prophase

• Replicated double stranded chromosomes condense from chromatin material and first visible
• Nuclear membrane and nucleolus disassemble
• Mitotic spindle forms
• Duplicated centrioles move to opposite poles of the cell

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Metaphase

• Double stranded chromosomes line up at the equator 
• Spindle fibers are at their longest

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Anaphase

• Centromere holding two sister chomatids splits
• Shortening of the spindle fibers separating the sister chromatids of the double stranded chromosome
• Single stranded chromosomes migrate toward opposite poles 

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Telephase

• Cytokinesis begins
• Chromosomes uncoil back into chromatin material
• Spindle fibers disassemble
• Nuclear membrane and nucleolus reassemble around two sets of single stranded chromosomes

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Cytokinesis in Plant Cells

Cell plate forms from cellulose deposit and forms inside to the outside

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Cytokinesis in Animal Cells

Cleavage Furrow; contractile ring forming for the outside inward and made of actin protein

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Chromatid

one of the two identical copies of DNA making up a duplicated chromosome

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centrosome

an organelle that serves as the main microtubule organizing center of the animal cell as well as a regulator of cell-cycle progression.

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Cyclins

kinase enzymes

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aster rays

composed of microtubles, pulls the chromosomes apart

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spindle fibers

separates the choromosomes, made of microtubules

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telomere

terminal stretch of DNA that doesn't code for anything but breaks off after each division of the cell, once it's gone the cell does not divide anymore

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nucleosome

segment of DNA wound around a histone protein

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proteasome

Digests particular cyclins to cause their levels to decrease

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Active Site

Part of an enzyme where substrates bind and undergo a chemical reaction

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Allosteric Site

Where allosteric inhibitors bind to, to denature an enzyme

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Histones

proteins that package DNA into nuclesomes

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Enzyme

 proteins that catalyze (i.e., increase the rates of) chemical reactions.

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Growth Factors

Naturally occurring substances capable of stimulating cellular growth.

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Microfilaments

Filaments of cytoskeleton

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Microtubules

Component of the cytoskeleton

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Tubulin

Globular proteins

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Actin

Globular proteins

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Contractile Ring

Belt of actin filaments that pulls the cell membrane inwards from both sides of the cell

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Cleavage Furrow

Indentation that begins the process of cytokinesis

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Cell Plate

Deposits cellulose, inside outward, forms the cell wall

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Somatic Cell

Gamete, diploid

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Synchrohous cell population

When all cells are at the same stage in the cell cycle. 

Adding chemical inhibitors

Marine invertebrates

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Cell Senescence

Limits the number of times a normal cell can divide

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Delta G

Change in free energy

+ endergonic

- exergonic

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Tetraploid

Anaphase and telophase

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Induced Fit Hypothesis

Changes shape after the substrate is inside the active site then it produces a product

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Photosynthesis

6CO2 + 6H2O---> C6H12O6 + 6O2

Endergonic

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Respiration

C6H12O6 + 6O2---> 6H2O + 6CO2

Exergonic

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ATP Synthesis

Provides energy for the cell 

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ATP Hydrolysis

Reaction by the which chemical energy has been stored and transported in the high energy phospho. bonds in ATP

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Contact Inhibitor

Ability for cells to stop dividing when they come in contact with neighboring cells

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Reaction Rate

Amount of Product       or Product Formed

           Time                                Time

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Electrostatic

Histone + DNA strands

      Mode:   CARDS LIST       ? pages   PRINT EXIT

Ludwig Boltzmann	Matter is composed of atoms, behavior of atoms accounts for chemical reactions Positivism- only basis for true knowledge was what is observered
Thermodynamics	Relationships among different forms of energy In chemical process, there is a transformation of energy. Tells us which direction a reaction process occurs
Kinetics	The study of motion The rate of a chemical reaction
What is work?	The movement of an object against force w= F x D

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Potential Energy	Stored Energy Present in chemical bonds of a molecule
Kinetic Energy	Energy in motion
What is heat?	Fast moving objects
1st Law of Thermodynamics	Energy can't be created nor destroyed Energy can be transformed Total amount of energy in any process is constant Quantity of energy

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2nd Law of Thermodynamics	In any spontaneous process, the energy available to do work decreases In spontaneous reactions proceed toward disorder (entropy) Quality of Energy
calorie	The amount needed to raise one gram of water to one degree celsius
Calorie	1000 calories= 1 kcal 1000g of water raised up 1 degree celsius or 1g of water raised 1000 degrees celsius Average student requires 2,000 to 3,000 a day
Free Energy	Energy available to do work in a system or a molecule (Potential energy) Symbol- G

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Exergonic	Releasing energy in the form of work ATP + H2O --> ADP + Pi + heat Free energy decreases
Endergonic	Absorbing or input of energy and it is not spontaneous ADP + Pi --> ATP Free energy increases
High Energy Bonds	Unstable chemical bonds that give up energy easily
Entropy	A formal measure of disorder, has a high value when objects are disordered or distributed at random and a low value when they are in order

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Two factors that determine whether or not a reaction occurs?	Energy, more individual bonds it has Concentration
Equilibrium	When the rate of a forward reaction is equal to the rate of the reverse reaction
Two factors determine the # of molecules in a space that will react	Temperature The height of the activation energy
Catalyst	A substance that lowers the activation energy of a reaction but it's not consumed or changed in the reaction

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Active Site	The groove or "cleft" on an enzyme's surface which binds to the substrate molecule
Activation Energy	The binding of the enzymes lowers the this energy
Three types of weak noncovalent bonds does a substrate temporarily bind to?	Hydrogen Ionic Hydrophobic
What two ways must the substrate and active site be complementary?	Shape and chemical nature

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Transition State	The temporary strained form of the substrate
Four factors which the rate of an enzyme catalyzed reaction is dependent on?	Temperature Concentration of substrate pH Concentration of enzyme
Enzyme Denaturation	Loses it's shape and no longer accepts the substrate and it won't function
Anabolism	Two small molecules to form a large molecule Endergonic A + B--> C Accepts two substrates

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Catabolism	Breaking a large molecule into two small ones.  Exergonic C--> A + B Accepts one substrate
Four reasons why networks of biochemical reactions in organisms are complex	Complex transformations by steps Couple endergonic and exergonic reactions Releases small amounts of energy for the cell to capture Generating useful intermediate products
Inhibitors	Something that restrains, blocks, or suppresses.
Steric (competitive) Inhibitor	Slows down the process of enzyme + substrate They are competing for the active site Similar in shape and chemical nature Reversible Overcome by adding more substrate or eliminating inhibitors If it is a high ratio then the enzyme is inactive Low ratio the enzyme is active

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Allosteric (noncompetitive) Inhibitor	Goes into the allosteric site, denaturing the enzyme, not allowing substrate into the active site Poisons, nerve gases, heavy metals, penicillin, insecticides
Henrietta Lack	Cervical Cancer, first human cells to be successfully cultured HeLa Cells
HeLa Cells	Used for Polio virus vaccine Genetic engineering
How many cells are in a adult human?	10 trillion or 10^13

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How many new cells form in about 5 minutes?	1 billion or 10^9
Cell Division in a unicellular organism	Asexual reproduction- produces 2 individuals
Cell division to a multicellular organism	Replace worn out cells or damaged cells Growth
Cell division to a Zygote?	Embryonic development

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Meiosis	Sexual reproduction; egg and sperm formed from testes and ovary Reduces number of chromosomes from diploid to haploid
Gametes	Sperm and Egg
Somatic Cells	Zygote, embryo, fetus, child, adult
Diploid Cells 2n	Testes, ovary, zygote,embryo, fetus, child, adult

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Haploid n	Sperm and Egg
Mitosis	Zygote to Adult Maintains diploid number of chromosomes
Fertilization	Restores the diploid number of chromosomes from two haploid gametes.
Walther Flemming	First biologist to describe the behavior of chromosomes during mitosis.

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August Weismann	Insisted that the nucleus contains the hereditary information
3 tasks accomplished by cell division	DNA replication Equal distribution of the duplicated DNA to the two daugther cells The division of the rest of the cell contains; cytokinesis
3 M's of cell division	Materials- small molecules that are used for energy or building blocks to make  macromolecules Machinery- macromolecules and organelles for cell division Memory- encoded info in DNA
Binary Fission	Division of prokaryotic bacteria

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Total Chromosomes	Human 46 Fruit Flies 8 Corn 20 Pea Plants 14
Total homologous pairs	Human 23 Fruit flies 4 Corn 10 Pea Plants 7
Homologous Chromosomes	Pairs of matching chromosomes; similar types of genes, one from mom one from dad
Homolog	Each member of the homologous pair

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3 Major Stages in the Cell Cycle	Mitosis- division of the nucleus Cytokinesis- division of the cytoplasm and formation of two plasma membranes Interphase- DNA replication and cell growth
M phase	Mitosis and Cytokinesis
G1	The "gap" or growth phase, completion of M and the beginning of DNA synthesis
S	Period of DNA synthesis, when a cell copies its chromosomes

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G2	Growth and preparation for division
Centrioles	Forms the mitotic spindle apparatus and aster rays
Kinetichore	A specialized disc-shaped structure to which attach the microtubules of the mitotic spindle.
Prophase	Replicated double stranded chromosomes condense from chromatin material and first visible Nuclear membrane and nucleolus disassemble Mitotic spindle forms Duplicated centrioles move to opposite poles of the cell

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Metaphase	Double stranded chromosomes line up at the equator  Spindle fibers are at their longest
Anaphase	Centromere holding two sister chomatids splits Shortening of the spindle fibers separating the sister chromatids of the double stranded chromosome Single stranded chromosomes migrate toward opposite poles
Telephase	Cytokinesis begins Chromosomes uncoil back into chromatin material Spindle fibers disassemble Nuclear membrane and nucleolus reassemble around two sets of single stranded chromosomes
Cytokinesis in Plant Cells	Cell plate forms from cellulose deposit and forms inside to the outside

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Cytokinesis in Animal Cells	Cleavage Furrow; contractile ring forming for the outside inward and made of actin protein
Chromatid	one of the two identical copies of DNA making up a duplicated chromosome
centrosome	an organelle that serves as the main microtubule organizing center of the animal cell as well as a regulator of cell-cycle progression.
Cyclins	kinase enzymes

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aster rays	composed of microtubles, pulls the chromosomes apart
spindle fibers	separates the choromosomes, made of microtubules
telomere	terminal stretch of DNA that doesn't code for anything but breaks off after each division of the cell, once it's gone the cell does not divide anymore
nucleosome	segment of DNA wound around a histone protein

Generated by Koofers.com

proteasome	Digests particular cyclins to cause their levels to decrease
Active Site	Part of an enzyme where substrates bind and undergo a chemical reaction
Allosteric Site	Where allosteric inhibitors bind to, to denature an enzyme
Histones	proteins that package DNA into nuclesomes

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Enzyme	proteins that catalyze (i.e., increase the rates of) chemical reactions.
Growth Factors	Naturally occurring substances capable of stimulating cellular growth.
Microfilaments	Filaments of cytoskeleton
Microtubules	Component of the cytoskeleton

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Tubulin	Globular proteins
Actin	Globular proteins
Contractile Ring	Belt of actin filaments that pulls the cell membrane inwards from both sides of the cell
Cleavage Furrow	Indentation that begins the process of cytokinesis

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Cell Plate	Deposits cellulose, inside outward, forms the cell wall
Somatic Cell	Gamete, diploid
Synchrohous cell population	When all cells are at the same stage in the cell cycle.  Adding chemical inhibitors Marine invertebrates
Cell Senescence	Limits the number of times a normal cell can divide

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Delta G	Change in free energy + endergonic - exergonic
Tetraploid	Anaphase and telophase
Induced Fit Hypothesis	Changes shape after the substrate is inside the active site then it produces a product
Photosynthesis	6CO2 + 6H2O---> C6H12O6 + 6O2 Endergonic

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Respiration	C6H12O6 + 6O2---> 6H2O + 6CO2 Exergonic
ATP Synthesis	Provides energy for the cell
ATP Hydrolysis	Reaction by the which chemical energy has been stored and transported in the high energy phospho. bonds in ATP
Contact Inhibitor	Ability for cells to stop dividing when they come in contact with neighboring cells

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Reaction Rate	Amount of Product       or Product Formed            Time                                Time
Electrostatic	Histone + DNA strands

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