Final Exam - Flashcards

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INCORRECT CORRECT

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Types of Evidence

1. Correlational
2. Loss of Function
3. Gain of Function

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Loss of Function

demonstrates necessity; necessary but not sufficient

if you remove x, may see a decrease in LS but may be that
x-y-LS

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Gain of Function

add x and see an increase in LS

sufficient but not necessary, not the only thing that may be important

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Age-Related Changes

CPID

cumulative: a number of processes that occur over time to cause aging; increase number

progressive: gradual, don't all accumulate instantly

intrinsic: not the result of a modifiable environment

deleterious: changes that reduce function and inc risk of mortality

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Aging

a series of CPID changes culminating in death; senescence

time dependent

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Biological Aging

functional aging, depends on the underlying physiology

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Chronological Aging

how much time has passed (calendar)

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Biomarker

reflection of biological age; there are often correlations between biomarkers and LS

*difference between risk factors is that risk factors predict impending death

telomeres have become important possible biomarkers

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What can Survival Curves teach us (tell us)?

can tell us at any given age, how many people are left, initial population size, longevity and maximum lifespan potential

also demonstrates different types  of mortality - intrinsic and extrinsic

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Type 3 Survival Curve

High Mortality Early
- number of surviving decreasing exponentially (lx)
- age-specific death rate constant (qx)
- lifespan expectation constant (ex)

high extrinsic mortality
Ex) sea turtles

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Type 2 Survival Curve

Constant Mortality Rate
- linear increase (lx)
- constant (dx)
- exponential increase (qx)
- fixed interval decrease for lifespan expectation

ex) molluscs, marine birds

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Type 1 Survival Curve

High Mortality Late

Dying from CPID reasons = eventual death from senescence

qx: gradual exponential increase
dx: exponential increase that reaches a peak late in life
ex: large life expectancy

ex) humans

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Survival Curve Variables

lx: number alive at beginning of each interval
dx: number alive at each x
qx: age specific mortality rate
Lx: average number alive between two x
Tx: total number of organism age units to be lived at the beginning of
         each x
ex: average further life expectancy at beginning of each x

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Why the large increase in human longevity?

large increases in human longevity are not due to decreases in premature death NOT to increases in maximum lifespan (MLS)

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Gompertz Curve

semi-logging of the survival curve gives us a growth curve
simplified gompertz curve: variables are q0 and x, and changing either will affect survival

q0: the y-intercept, vulnerability to death due to age-related causes
x: the slope, the rate of increase in mortality (aging rate)

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Ultimate Theories of Aging

answer the questions why does aging exist at all

1. Rate of Living Theory
2. Good of the Species
3. Evolutionary Aging Theory

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Rate of Living Theory

energy consumption limits lifespan

- more readily you consume energy, the shorter your lifespan will be because you are aging faster

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How do we measure energy consumption?

metabolic rate (MR) - rate at which an organism consumers energy; basal metabolic rate

- standardize based on mass  (m/O2/hr)/g

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Rubner's 5 mammals

found that when compared MR to LS, larger animals had a longer lifespan and a lower mass specific MR but looking at LEE changed that

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LEE

lifetime energy expenditure

- regardless of how long you live, consume the same amount of energy

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Pearl's Predictions

(Rate of Living Theory)

1. between species, organisms have the same lifetime energy expenditure

2. within a species, an inverse relationship between MR and LS

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Conclusions from the Rate of Living Theory

- evidence for and against but mostly against b/c MR does affect aging but not always

- can't be the ultimate theory

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Good of the Species Theory

anything so ubiquitous has to be advantageous...

individuals age to make room for younger individuals; age for the good of the group

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Weismann's Corollaries

1. a finite lifespan ensures better adaptation to the environment

2. aging is necessary to eliminate the old, thereby providing the young, vigorous animals with resources

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Problems with Weismann's Corollaries

1. confuses death with aging; extrinsic mortality will still happen which leads to evolutionary change; just because you don't die, doesn't mean you don't reproduce

2. group selection - alleles can spread in a population because of the benefits they bestow on groups of individuals - is wrong
natural selection works on individuals not groups
NS is a mechanisms by which evolution operates b/c only the best individuals survive and reproduce

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What has natural selection engineered all animals to do?

Reproduce (with variation in plants and animals)

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What is the ultimate life history strategy?

- ultimate goal is to achieve the highest rate of population growth

1. Would be mature when born
2. would produce large numbers of high quality offspring
3. would live forever

- life theory of evolution posits that the schedule of an animals life (maturation, reproduction, growth) is shaped by natural selection

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Resource allocation

- the allocation of energy and resources to growth, reproduction, and maintenance repair

- there can be a number of successful strategies determined by resource allocation

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What is the relationship between fecundity and LS?

there is a negative relationship between lifespan and fecundity

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Why might some species live longer?

have adapted ways to avoid extrinsic mortality

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Non-adaptive Evolutionary Theory

- aging is not adaptive and natural selection should oppose senescence...

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Evolutionary Lessons learned from Life Tables

1. older individuals don't contribute much to the population

2. early, deleterious mutations should be selected against

3. late deleterious mutations are not selected against

* the force of natural selection weakens with age

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Genetic Mechanisms of The Evolutionary Theory

1. Mutation Accumulation
2. Antagonistic Pleiotropy
3. Disposable Soma

* these mechanisms are not mutually exclusive

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Mutation Accumulation

(Evolutionary Theory of Aging)

declining force of natural selection with age makes it difficult to remove deleterious mutations late in life; the passive genomic build-up of alleles with deleterious effects expressed only late in life

selection shadow: at some point can't really do anything about mutations late in life b/c already reproduced

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Antagonistic Pleiotropy

(Evolutionary Theory of Aging)

active selection favoring alleles with beneficial early life effects but harmful effects later in life

ex) testosterone: opposes immune function and can lead to cancer (costs later in life) but is what allows to reproduce

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Disposable Soma

organisms must balance the demands of maintaining their body or reproducing aka tradeoffs between reproduction and maintenance

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Predictions of Evolutionary Theory of Aging

1. organisms that lack a clear distinction between germline and soma should not age (binary fission)

2. altering the rate of decline of natural selection should alter the aging rate
- reducing the environmentally induced death rate; making late-life reproduction a greater component of fitness

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Grandmother Hypothesis

answers why there is post-reproductive lifespan

- having children is costly but your grandmother shares 25% of your genes so wants to see the success of offspring and their offspring

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Why should longevity evolve?

- environmentally selected: sparse or unpredictable environments, reproduction limited to certain times

- socially selected: diet and intelligence, interdependent social groups, development time; brain size and social groups reduce the chance of extrinsic mortality

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What are the requirements for Survival and their mechanisms?

1. decrease blood loss: vasoconstriction to non-essential organs
2. provide NRG for muscle activity and keep brain functioning: increased HR to inc BP leads to inc O2 and glucose delivery
3. provide NRG (access stores): inc breakdown of glycogen to glucose
4. reallocate NRG from non-essential systems: dec reproduction, growth, immune function
5. state of mind: decrease pain (stimulate opioid receptors

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Epinephrine

"adrenaline"
released quickly (milliseconds) to control vasoconstriction and provide NRG for muscle activity and brain function

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Glucocorticoids

cortisol and corticosterone

control the providing of NRG by accessing stores and reallocate NRG from non -essential systems

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B-endorphins

another hormone of the stress response

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HPA axis

hypothalamus - pituitary (anterior) - adrenal cortex

hypothalamus: produces CRH
pituitary: produces ACTH
adrenal cortex: produces Cort
adrenal medulla:produces epinephrine

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What mechanism does the HPA axis use?

negative feedback: output of a system opposes the inputs

hypothalamus receptors for CORT that when bound shut down receptors

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Anatomy of a glucocorticoid stress response

baseline
elevated Cort
recovery - line can be lower for chronic stress

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Chronic Stress and Effects

- repeated or prolonged exposures to acute stress

1. chronically high CORT levels: CORT levels reach greater amts and recovery takes longer and est of a new baseline can occur

2. down-regulate other systems: immune, growth, reproduction; can cause delayed maturity and amenorrhea (in gymnasts)

*extremely stressful situations can cause psychosocial short stature that can be reversed when removed form the situation

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Glucocorticoid Cascade Hypothesis

- hypothalamus receptors destroyed and negative feedback inhibited so CORT stays around longer; more CORT leads to greater degradation

old vs young

elderly will have higher peak levels during a response and a slower recovery time with a higher baseline

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Stress and Cellular Aging

accelerated telomere shortening

stressed individuals had a higher percentage of total damage to DNA

telomere length has an inverse relationship with stress

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Why does prenatal stress occur?

HPA axis set up during development and stressed out mother effects the set-up of this axis

maternal CORT is crossing the placenta and affecting the axis

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What does prenatal stress result in?

people that were prenatally stressed tend to have over-reactive stress responses
--certain amount of CORT to shut-off higher base because mother's CORT and end up with more receptors so it takes more to shut off

--causes lower birth weight, reduced growth rate, males feminized and females masculinized, impaired immune function impaired

--higher baseline cortisol, impaired ability to shut down stress response

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Neonatal handling

prenatal stress results reversed and almost lowered because handling resulted in increased parental care in mice
--lower baseline CORT and more quickly shuts down stress response

neonates given attention tend to have hypoactive stress responses

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Hormesis

stress isn't all bad, even some chronic stress can be ok

beneficial effect resulting from the response of an organism to a low intensity stressor

exercise can be a stressor (depends on regime)
CR and LS = hormesis, low levels of stress can upregulate defense mechanisms, but there may be tradeoffs in other systems such as growth and reproduction

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Vitamins

organic compound necessary for health but don't provide energy

water soluble: C, B (plasma)

fat soluble: A,D,E, K (cellular membrane)

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Vitamin C & Megadose

10 mg/day will prevent scurvy and 60mg/day is the recommended does

Megadose of Vitamin C:
 - H2O soluble so no problem with accumulation
- but interferes with a number of common medical tests such as glucose and alters other nutrient absorption
- vitamin C to oxalic acid to kidney stones
* can act as a pro-oxidant by donating e- (works as AOx by reducing molecules or donating e-) to iron which becomes a free radical

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Vitamin A & Megadose

retinol (animal form) - eggs, meat, dairy
beta-carotene (BCA, plant form) - green leafy veggies

BCA is a precursor to Vit A and is converted to retinol in the body

megadosing on BCA isn't a problem because the body won't let retinal reach toxic levels by physiologically regulating it

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Vitamin E

most potent AOx vitamin

recommended daily does is 15mg

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What type of meals and how many?

rich in veggies, fruit, fish, whole grains results in less CDV disease, cancer, and total mortality

one meal a day results in increased LDL and blood glucose, delayed insulin response

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Physiological Benefits of exercise

- increased muscle mass, bone density, immune function

- decrease in cholesterol, glucose, and insulin levels and risk of CVD and diabetes

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Proximate Mechanisms and Exercise

oxidative stress: hormetic effect in trained individuals; increased anti-oxidants that act earlier in the chain

telomere length: better maintenance of telomeres but does not alter baseline Ox damage

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Lifespan vs Healthspan

lifespan: the max number of years a species/pop attains

healthspan: the number of disease free years

- exercise might not have the greatest impact on lifespan but can significantly increase healthspan

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How do you measure fitness level?

vital capacity: max volume of air expired after a maximal inspiration

      Mode:   CARDS LIST       ? pages   PRINT EXIT

Types of Evidence	1. Correlational 2. Loss of Function 3. Gain of Function
Loss of Function	demonstrates necessity; necessary but not sufficient if you remove x, may see a decrease in LS but may be that x-y-LS
Gain of Function	add x and see an increase in LS sufficient but not necessary, not the only thing that may be important
Age-Related Changes	CPID cumulative: a number of processes that occur over time to cause aging; increase number progressive: gradual, don't all accumulate instantly intrinsic: not the result of a modifiable environment deleterious: changes that reduce function and inc risk of mortality

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Aging	a series of CPID changes culminating in death; senescence time dependent
Biological Aging	functional aging, depends on the underlying physiology
Chronological Aging	how much time has passed (calendar)
Biomarker	reflection of biological age; there are often correlations between biomarkers and LS *difference between risk factors is that risk factors predict impending death telomeres have become important possible biomarkers

Generated by Koofers.com

What can Survival Curves teach us (tell us)?	can tell us at any given age, how many people are left, initial population size, longevity and maximum lifespan potential also demonstrates different types  of mortality - intrinsic and extrinsic
Type 3 Survival Curve	High Mortality Early - number of surviving decreasing exponentially (lx) - age-specific death rate constant (qx) - lifespan expectation constant (ex) high extrinsic mortality Ex) sea turtles
Type 2 Survival Curve	Constant Mortality Rate - linear increase (lx) - constant (dx) - exponential increase (qx) - fixed interval decrease for lifespan expectation ex) molluscs, marine birds
Type 1 Survival Curve	High Mortality Late Dying from CPID reasons = eventual death from senescence qx: gradual exponential increase dx: exponential increase that reaches a peak late in life ex: large life expectancy ex) humans

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Survival Curve Variables	lx: number alive at beginning of each interval dx: number alive at each x qx: age specific mortality rate Lx: average number alive between two x Tx: total number of organism age units to be lived at the beginning of          each x ex: average further life expectancy at beginning of each x
Why the large increase in human longevity?	large increases in human longevity are not due to decreases in premature death NOT to increases in maximum lifespan (MLS)
Gompertz Curve	semi-logging of the survival curve gives us a growth curve simplified gompertz curve: variables are q0 and x, and changing either will affect survival q0: the y-intercept, vulnerability to death due to age-related causes x: the slope, the rate of increase in mortality (aging rate)
Ultimate Theories of Aging	answer the questions why does aging exist at all 1. Rate of Living Theory 2. Good of the Species 3. Evolutionary Aging Theory

Generated by Koofers.com

Rate of Living Theory	energy consumption limits lifespan - more readily you consume energy, the shorter your lifespan will be because you are aging faster
How do we measure energy consumption?	metabolic rate (MR) - rate at which an organism consumers energy; basal metabolic rate - standardize based on mass  (m/O2/hr)/g
Rubner's 5 mammals	found that when compared MR to LS, larger animals had a longer lifespan and a lower mass specific MR but looking at LEE changed that
LEE	lifetime energy expenditure - regardless of how long you live, consume the same amount of energy

Generated by Koofers.com

Pearl's Predictions	(Rate of Living Theory) 1. between species, organisms have the same lifetime energy expenditure 2. within a species, an inverse relationship between MR and LS
Conclusions from the Rate of Living Theory	- evidence for and against but mostly against b/c MR does affect aging but not always - can't be the ultimate theory
Good of the Species Theory	anything so ubiquitous has to be advantageous... individuals age to make room for younger individuals; age for the good of the group
Weismann's Corollaries	1. a finite lifespan ensures better adaptation to the environment 2. aging is necessary to eliminate the old, thereby providing the young, vigorous animals with resources

Generated by Koofers.com

Problems with Weismann's Corollaries	1. confuses death with aging; extrinsic mortality will still happen which leads to evolutionary change; just because you don't die, doesn't mean you don't reproduce 2. group selection - alleles can spread in a population because of the benefits they bestow on groups of individuals - is wrong natural selection works on individuals not groups NS is a mechanisms by which evolution operates b/c only the best individuals survive and reproduce
What has natural selection engineered all animals to do?	Reproduce (with variation in plants and animals)
What is the ultimate life history strategy?	- ultimate goal is to achieve the highest rate of population growth 1. Would be mature when born 2. would produce large numbers of high quality offspring 3. would live forever - life theory of evolution posits that the schedule of an animals life (maturation, reproduction, growth) is shaped by natural selection
Resource allocation	- the allocation of energy and resources to growth, reproduction, and maintenance repair - there can be a number of successful strategies determined by resource allocation

Generated by Koofers.com

What is the relationship between fecundity and LS?	there is a negative relationship between lifespan and fecundity
Why might some species live longer?	have adapted ways to avoid extrinsic mortality
Non-adaptive Evolutionary Theory	- aging is not adaptive and natural selection should oppose senescence...
Evolutionary Lessons learned from Life Tables	1. older individuals don't contribute much to the population 2. early, deleterious mutations should be selected against 3. late deleterious mutations are not selected against * the force of natural selection weakens with age

Generated by Koofers.com

Genetic Mechanisms of The Evolutionary Theory	1. Mutation Accumulation 2. Antagonistic Pleiotropy 3. Disposable Soma * these mechanisms are not mutually exclusive
Mutation Accumulation	(Evolutionary Theory of Aging) declining force of natural selection with age makes it difficult to remove deleterious mutations late in life; the passive genomic build-up of alleles with deleterious effects expressed only late in life selection shadow: at some point can't really do anything about mutations late in life b/c already reproduced
Antagonistic Pleiotropy	(Evolutionary Theory of Aging) active selection favoring alleles with beneficial early life effects but harmful effects later in life ex) testosterone: opposes immune function and can lead to cancer (costs later in life) but is what allows to reproduce
Disposable Soma	organisms must balance the demands of maintaining their body or reproducing aka tradeoffs between reproduction and maintenance

Generated by Koofers.com

Predictions of Evolutionary Theory of Aging	1. organisms that lack a clear distinction between germline and soma should not age (binary fission) 2. altering the rate of decline of natural selection should alter the aging rate - reducing the environmentally induced death rate; making late-life reproduction a greater component of fitness
Grandmother Hypothesis	answers why there is post-reproductive lifespan - having children is costly but your grandmother shares 25% of your genes so wants to see the success of offspring and their offspring
Why should longevity evolve?	- environmentally selected: sparse or unpredictable environments, reproduction limited to certain times - socially selected: diet and intelligence, interdependent social groups, development time; brain size and social groups reduce the chance of extrinsic mortality
What are the requirements for Survival and their mechanisms?	1. decrease blood loss: vasoconstriction to non-essential organs 2. provide NRG for muscle activity and keep brain functioning: increased HR to inc BP leads to inc O2 and glucose delivery 3. provide NRG (access stores): inc breakdown of glycogen to glucose 4. reallocate NRG from non-essential systems: dec reproduction, growth, immune function 5. state of mind: decrease pain (stimulate opioid receptors

Generated by Koofers.com

Epinephrine	"adrenaline" released quickly (milliseconds) to control vasoconstriction and provide NRG for muscle activity and brain function
Glucocorticoids	cortisol and corticosterone control the providing of NRG by accessing stores and reallocate NRG from non -essential systems
B-endorphins	another hormone of the stress response
HPA axis	hypothalamus - pituitary (anterior) - adrenal cortex hypothalamus: produces CRH pituitary: produces ACTH adrenal cortex: produces Cort adrenal medulla:produces epinephrine

Generated by Koofers.com

What mechanism does the HPA axis use?	negative feedback: output of a system opposes the inputs hypothalamus receptors for CORT that when bound shut down receptors
Anatomy of a glucocorticoid stress response	baseline elevated Cort recovery - line can be lower for chronic stress
Chronic Stress and Effects	- repeated or prolonged exposures to acute stress 1. chronically high CORT levels: CORT levels reach greater amts and recovery takes longer and est of a new baseline can occur 2. down-regulate other systems: immune, growth, reproduction; can cause delayed maturity and amenorrhea (in gymnasts) *extremely stressful situations can cause psychosocial short stature that can be reversed when removed form the situation
Glucocorticoid Cascade Hypothesis	- hypothalamus receptors destroyed and negative feedback inhibited so CORT stays around longer; more CORT leads to greater degradation old vs young elderly will have higher peak levels during a response and a slower recovery time with a higher baseline

Generated by Koofers.com

Stress and Cellular Aging	accelerated telomere shortening stressed individuals had a higher percentage of total damage to DNA telomere length has an inverse relationship with stress
Why does prenatal stress occur?	HPA axis set up during development and stressed out mother effects the set-up of this axis maternal CORT is crossing the placenta and affecting the axis
What does prenatal stress result in?	people that were prenatally stressed tend to have over-reactive stress responses --certain amount of CORT to shut-off higher base because mother's CORT and end up with more receptors so it takes more to shut off --causes lower birth weight, reduced growth rate, males feminized and females masculinized, impaired immune function impaired --higher baseline cortisol, impaired ability to shut down stress response
Neonatal handling	prenatal stress results reversed and almost lowered because handling resulted in increased parental care in mice --lower baseline CORT and more quickly shuts down stress response neonates given attention tend to have hypoactive stress responses

Generated by Koofers.com

Hormesis	stress isn't all bad, even some chronic stress can be ok beneficial effect resulting from the response of an organism to a low intensity stressor exercise can be a stressor (depends on regime) CR and LS = hormesis, low levels of stress can upregulate defense mechanisms, but there may be tradeoffs in other systems such as growth and reproduction
Vitamins	organic compound necessary for health but don't provide energy water soluble: C, B (plasma) fat soluble: A,D,E, K (cellular membrane)
Vitamin C & Megadose	10 mg/day will prevent scurvy and 60mg/day is the recommended does Megadose of Vitamin C:  - H2O soluble so no problem with accumulation - but interferes with a number of common medical tests such as glucose and alters other nutrient absorption - vitamin C to oxalic acid to kidney stones * can act as a pro-oxidant by donating e- (works as AOx by reducing molecules or donating e-) to iron which becomes a free radical
Vitamin A & Megadose	retinol (animal form) - eggs, meat, dairy beta-carotene (BCA, plant form) - green leafy veggies BCA is a precursor to Vit A and is converted to retinol in the body megadosing on BCA isn't a problem because the body won't let retinal reach toxic levels by physiologically regulating it

Generated by Koofers.com

Vitamin E	most potent AOx vitamin recommended daily does is 15mg
What type of meals and how many?	rich in veggies, fruit, fish, whole grains results in less CDV disease, cancer, and total mortality one meal a day results in increased LDL and blood glucose, delayed insulin response
Physiological Benefits of exercise	- increased muscle mass, bone density, immune function - decrease in cholesterol, glucose, and insulin levels and risk of CVD and diabetes
Proximate Mechanisms and Exercise	oxidative stress: hormetic effect in trained individuals; increased anti-oxidants that act earlier in the chain telomere length: better maintenance of telomeres but does not alter baseline Ox damage

Generated by Koofers.com

Lifespan vs Healthspan	lifespan: the max number of years a species/pop attains healthspan: the number of disease free years - exercise might not have the greatest impact on lifespan but can significantly increase healthspan
How do you measure fitness level?	vital capacity: max volume of air expired after a maximal inspiration

Generated by Koofers.com

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