Test 1 - Flashcards

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INCORRECT CORRECT

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General Characteristics of blood

1.class as a type of connective tissue
2.travels via bld vessels
3.helps maintain homeostasis

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Homeostasis (blood)

1. bld is a transport mechanism
2. regulate pH (7.35-7.45)
3.helps maintain body temperature (ex.vasodialation)
4. protection -bld contains cells and chemicals of the immune
system.
5. clotting formation- bld contains clotting cells and chemicals
that prevent excess bld loss.

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Composition of blood (plasma)

Liquid portion of blood - 91% H20 and other remaining 9% is plasma proteins.

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Plasma Protein (Albumin)

*58% of plasma proteins
*regulates the movement of water between tissues spaces and bld vessels by contributing to Plasma Colloid Osmotic Pressure.

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Plasma Protein (globulin)

*38% of Plasma protein
*some act as antibodies -formed in response to antigens(any
foreign substance)
*some bind to other substances and act as transport molecules

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Plasma Protein (fibrinogen)

*4% of plasma protein
*contributes to formation of blood clots

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Composition of blood (formed elements)

formed elements ( bld cells and platelets)

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Hemopoiesis

production of formed elements

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Hemopoeisis (in embryo/fetus)

Takes place in

-yolk sac
-liver
-spleen
-lymph nodes
-red bone marrow (in almost all forming bone tissue)

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Hemopoeisis (neonatal)

takes place in

-spleen
-lymph nodes
-red bone marrow (in almost all bone tissue)

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Hemopoeisis (adults)

takes place in

-red marrow (only)
=sternum
=vertebrae
=pelvis
=proximal end of femur/humerus

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Bld cell precusors

1.pro-erythrocyte >erythrocyte RBC
2.myeloblasts > basophil WBC
3. >eosinophil WBC
4. > neutrophil WBC
5. lymphoblasts> lymphocyte WBC (BorT)
6. monoblasts > monocyte WBC
7. mega-Karoycyte> platelets (break up product not true cell
type

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Formed Elements

RBC- erythrocytes
biconcave disks
at maturity - no cellular organelles

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RBC

*main component is Hemoglobin= transports gas and gives red color

* other components include lipids , ATP and enzyme Carbonic Anydrase

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Fxn of RBC

*Transport O2 from lungs > tissues
*transport CO2 from tissue>lungs

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Hemoglobin

*protein
*made of 4 polypeptide chains("globin")
-2 alpha subunits
-2 beta subunits
=4 heme contain 1 Fe atom each

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Life history of RBC

Production=erythropoiesis
-stimulated by low plasma O2 levels
-regulated by hormone from kidney called erythropoietin
-Immature RBC is called reticulocyte

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Breakdown of Hemoglobin from lysed RBCs

- remanants get trapped in liver and spleen
=macrophages enzymatically seperate the 'heme' and 'globin'

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globin

is broke down into amino acid and they will be used in production for new proteins.
-Fe portion of heme is transported to red bone marrow to be
recycled into new Hb molecules

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Definition

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'heme'

-pigments of the heme converted into bilirubin, which becomes part of bile secreted by the liver during digestion.

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WBC

(leukocytes)
- have longer life than RBC
-lack hemoglobin but have all other cellular organelles

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WBC fxn

fxn is to protect against invading microorganisms- remove dead cells and debris from circulation

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Wbc housed in?

lymphatic until infection occurs-released general circulation when needed.

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Neutrophil

=most common WBC
=nucleus multi lobed
=cytoplasmic granules 'stain purple' with acidic or basic dye
=>secrete antibodies lysozyme & defensins
==>fxn in phagocytosis

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phagocytosis

to engulf solid particles

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Eosinophils

=1-4%
=nucleus is bi-lobed
=cytoplasmic granules will stain red/orange w / eosin dye
=>secrete toxic chemical specific for parasitic worm infection
=> secrete chemicals that reduce the severity of an allergic
rxn

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Basophil

=rarest 1/2%
=nucleus has to indistinct lobes (not same size)
=granules will stain blue with basic dye
=>contain histamine,which facilitate an allergic rxn/immune response
=>contain heparin, an anti-coagulation(blood thinner)

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Lymphocyte

2nd most common,smallest
=large dark nucleus
=2x size of RBC
*** no granules
=play large role in immunity
=>B cells- when stimulated by bacteria and toxins they differentiate into plasma cells
==> plasma cells then secret antibodies specific for microorganism
=> Tcells directly attack virus infected or tumor cells

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Monocytes

4-8%,largest
=distinct kidney shaped nucleus
*** no granules
=differentiate into macrophages which aid in phagocytosis

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Life History of WBC

production is called=leukopiesis
-takes place in Red bone marrow

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Platelets

(thrombocytes)
structure-cell fragments derived from the breakup of MegaKarocytes
-surface has stick glycoproteins,causes them to stick to each other
-cytoplasmic granules contain chemicals that facilitate clotting

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Hemostasis

stopping flow of blood,occurs in 3 phases

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1st hemostasis (vascular spasm)

-immediate but temporary closure of damaged B.V. to decrease Blood flow
=due to reflexive contraction of smooth muscle w/in vessel wall
-triggered by direct injury to vessel
=injury causes release of endothelin from endothelial cells.
-also be triggered by nervous system local pain receptors are stimulated

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2nd hemostasis (Platelet plug formation)

accumulation of platelets at injury site, occurs in 3 steps
1.platelet adhesion
2.platelet release rxn
3.platelet aggregation


***explained in following note cards

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Step 1 Platelet plug formation (platelet adhesion)

->injured endothelial cells produce the protein VON Willebrand factor
=>adheres the platelets to collagen in B.V. that has been exposed due to injury,uninjured B.V. collagen not exposed

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Step 2 Platelet plug formation (Platelet release rxn)

->when platelets bind to collagen , become activated and release chemicals from cytoplasmic granules(not endothel)
=>ADP & Thromboxane A2 which recruit more platelets to injury site

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Step 3 Platelet plug formation (Platelet aggregation)

->the plasma protein fibrinogen diffuses into area and facilitates binding of platelets together
-> PGI2(prostaglandin)-released from damaged endothelial cells limits the aggregation to only the injury area.

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3rd Hemostasis (coagulation)

dependent on clotting factors/chemicals in bld.

Prothrombin----prothrom activator---> Thrombin

fibrinogen----thrombin(activates)--->fibrin

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Prothrombin

plasma protein made in liver
-always around but not active

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prothrombin activator

released by damaged endothelial cells

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Fibrinogen

inactive but always around

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fibrin

glue that binds platelets

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Hemostasis (Fibrinolysis)

endothelial cells around clot released a protein called Tissue Plasminogen Activator

Plasminogen----TPA----> plasmin
=plasmin hydrolyzes fibrin holding clot together(dissolves)

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THE HEART

location-thoracic cavity btw lungs
-2/3s of the hearts mass is lft of sternum

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mediastinum

midline partition formed by the heart,trachea, and esophagus

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FXNs of HEART

-generates Blood pressure(BP) needed to propel bld through B.V.
-separates pulmonary circulation(R) from systemic circulation(L)
-can change rate and force depending on metabolic needs of tissue

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Anatomy OF Heart (pericardial sac)

dbl layered closed sac surrounding heart
-outermost layer in fibrous pericardium
-serous pericardium

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Fibrous pericardium

outermost
-tough fibrous connective tissue ,to prevent over distension of the heart and anchor heart w/in mediastinum

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Serous pericardium

simple squamous epithelium
-two layers
=perietal pericardium-contact with heart cavity walls
=visceral pericardium-covers surface of heart

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Heart walls

3 layers of tissue
- epicardium-outer
-myocardium-middle layer,thick cardiac muscle cells
-endocardium-innermost

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Heart Chambers

2 atria and 2 ventricles
-tissue separating left atrium from rt atrium is interatrial septum
-tissue separating ventricles is interventricular septum

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Atria

auricles on outer heart surface of atria -allows for atria to increase filling capacity
-inner post wall is smooth
-inner anterior wall is ridged formed of pectinate muscles

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Atria

'receiving chambers'
rt. atrium receives de-oxygenated bld from 3veins:
=superior vena cavae
=inferior vena cavae
=coronary sinus

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fossa ovalis

on the rt. side of the inter atrial septum is a slight oval depression

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left atrium

receives oxygenated bld from lungs via 4 pulmonary veins

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Ventricles

'distributing chambers'
***know flow

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Atrioventricular valve

-allow bld flow from atria into ventricles
-prevents bld from going back into atria b/c (closed) when ventricles contract.
** Tricuspid valve- on rt. side
** Bicuspid valve -on lft. side

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Semilunar valves

prevent retro grade of bld allow bld to flow from ventricles to aorta and pulmonary trunk. open when ventricles contract.
-but valves prevent bld from flowing back into ventricles close when ventricles relax
** pulmonary semilunar valve-btw rt. ventricle and pulmonary trunk
** Aortic semilunar valve- btw left ventricle and aorta

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Histology of the HEART

-Cardiac muscle is striated muscle with sarcomeres made of actin and myosin

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Intercalated discs

cells are electrically coupled by cellular adhesions
-areas of low electrical resistance that allow ions to flow quickly from cell to cell
=the depolarization current can freely travel over the heart

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Cardiac muscle physiology

cellular components
-contractile cells
-conductile cells

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contractile cells

muscle cells responsible for the actual contraction
(ie) muscles that have actin and myosin
-makeup 99% of all cardiac cells

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conductile cells

-self excitable cells that generate their own action potential
=** these APs then initiate APs in the contractile cells

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Sinoatrial node

- located superiorly in the rt. atrial wall
-called heart pacemaker b/c it depolarizes the fastest and starts the sequence of excitation

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Internodal pathway

connection btwn SA & AV node

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Atrioventricular node

located in the inferior portion of interartrial septum
=depolarization is delayed here to give atria time to fully contract and empty blood into ventricles before ventricles are stimulated to contract

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Bundle of HIS/AV bundles

divides into LF & RT bundle branches at interventricular septum

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PUrkinje Fibers

- penetrate heart at apex then wind superiorly toward the base
-causes ventricles to contract upwards

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EKG

displays a summation of all APs traveling through heart at given time.
-represents electrical events which are responsible for the mechanical events of systole and diastole

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heart sounds

1st
-"LUBB" -AV valves closing at he start of ventricular systole

2nd
-"DUPP"-SL valves closing at the start of ventricular diastole

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Tachycardia

-increased heart rate
-100-250 BPM

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Bradycardia

-decreased heart rate
-less than 60 BPM

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Arythmias

change in sequence of excitation

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SA nodal block

-missing P wave
-normal QRS and T wave
-lowered heart rate, b/c the AV node is now the pace maker

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AV nodal block

-blockage of AP through the bundle of HIS
-ventricles DO NOT receive all atrial impulses
-normal time btw the end of the P wave and the beginning of the QRS is ~ .16 sec

** need to know know
1st degree, 2nd degree, and 3rd degree

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Ventricular fibrillation

( V-fib)
-very rapid , highly uncoordinated heart contractions
-some areas of the ventricles may be contracting while others are relaxing
-ventricles are never completely full nor completely empty
-results in severe decreases in blood delivery to lungs and tissues; can be fatal in minutes

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Cardiac Output

CO=the amount of blood pumped by the heart per min
-calculated using heart rate and stroke volume = the amount of blood pumped by the heart per beat

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Regulation of heart(intrinsic)

within the heart
-the more the ventricular muscle stretched, the more forceful the next contraction will be
-venous return=amt of bld entering the rt atrium via vena cavae
-increases stroke volume
-increased bld to heart ,the more that will be pumped out
(increase in venous return=increased SV=increase in CO)

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Extrinsic

neural regulation by the autonomic nervous system
-vagal center
-vasomotor center

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Vagal center

-medulla oblongata
-parasymp control
-rest and relaxation;decreases heart rate

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vasomotor center

medulla oblongata
-sympathetic control
-fight or flight; increased HR

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Beta Blocker

block receptors in the heart to slow down HR

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Blood Vessels

closed delivery system that begins and ends at the heart

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Tunica Intima

innermost layer of endothel cells comes indirect contact with blood

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Tunica Media

Middle layer composed of smooth muscle and innervated by sympathetic nervous system
-vasodilation and constriction

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Tunica Adventitia

outermost layer that anchors vessels to surrounding structures

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Arterial system

transport O2 bld from hrt to tissue
-Elastic/conducting arteries
-muscular/distributing arteries
-arterioles

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Definition

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General Characteristics of blood	1.class as a type of connective tissue 2.travels via bld vessels 3.helps maintain homeostasis
Homeostasis (blood)	1. bld is a transport mechanism 2. regulate pH (7.35-7.45) 3.helps maintain body temperature (ex.vasodialation) 4. protection -bld contains cells and chemicals of the immune system. 5. clotting formation- bld contains clotting cells and chemicals that prevent excess bld loss.
Composition of blood (plasma)	Liquid portion of blood - 91% H20 and other remaining 9% is plasma proteins.
Plasma Protein (Albumin)	*58% of plasma proteins *regulates the movement of water between tissues spaces and bld vessels by contributing to Plasma Colloid Osmotic Pressure.

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Plasma Protein (globulin)	*38% of Plasma protein *some act as antibodies -formed in response to antigens(any foreign substance) *some bind to other substances and act as transport molecules
Plasma Protein (fibrinogen)	*4% of plasma protein *contributes to formation of blood clots
Composition of blood (formed elements)	formed elements ( bld cells and platelets)
Hemopoiesis	production of formed elements

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Hemopoeisis (in embryo/fetus)	Takes place in -yolk sac -liver -spleen -lymph nodes -red bone marrow (in almost all forming bone tissue)
Hemopoeisis (neonatal)	takes place in -spleen -lymph nodes -red bone marrow (in almost all bone tissue)
Hemopoeisis (adults)	takes place in -red marrow (only) =sternum =vertebrae =pelvis =proximal end of femur/humerus
Bld cell precusors	1.pro-erythrocyte >erythrocyte RBC 2.myeloblasts > basophil WBC 3. >eosinophil WBC 4. > neutrophil WBC 5. lymphoblasts> lymphocyte WBC (BorT) 6. monoblasts > monocyte WBC 7. mega-Karoycyte> platelets (break up product not true cell type

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Formed Elements	RBC- erythrocytes biconcave disks at maturity - no cellular organelles
RBC	*main component is Hemoglobin= transports gas and gives red color * other components include lipids , ATP and enzyme Carbonic Anydrase
Fxn of RBC	*Transport O2 from lungs > tissues *transport CO2 from tissue>lungs
Hemoglobin	*protein *made of 4 polypeptide chains("globin") -2 alpha subunits -2 beta subunits =4 heme contain 1 Fe atom each

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Life history of RBC	Production=erythropoiesis -stimulated by low plasma O2 levels -regulated by hormone from kidney called erythropoietin -Immature RBC is called reticulocyte
Breakdown of Hemoglobin from lysed RBCs	- remanants get trapped in liver and spleen =macrophages enzymatically seperate the 'heme' and 'globin'
globin	is broke down into amino acid and they will be used in production for new proteins. -Fe portion of heme is transported to red bone marrow to be recycled into new Hb molecules
	Definition

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'heme'	-pigments of the heme converted into bilirubin, which becomes part of bile secreted by the liver during digestion.
WBC	(leukocytes) - have longer life than RBC -lack hemoglobin but have all other cellular organelles
WBC fxn	fxn is to protect against invading microorganisms- remove dead cells and debris from circulation
Wbc housed in?	lymphatic until infection occurs-released general circulation when needed.

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Neutrophil	=most common WBC =nucleus multi lobed =cytoplasmic granules 'stain purple' with acidic or basic dye =>secrete antibodies lysozyme & defensins ==>fxn in phagocytosis
phagocytosis	to engulf solid particles
Eosinophils	=1-4% =nucleus is bi-lobed =cytoplasmic granules will stain red/orange w / eosin dye =>secrete toxic chemical specific for parasitic worm infection => secrete chemicals that reduce the severity of an allergic rxn
Basophil	=rarest 1/2% =nucleus has to indistinct lobes (not same size) =granules will stain blue with basic dye =>contain histamine,which facilitate an allergic rxn/immune response =>contain heparin, an anti-coagulation(blood thinner)

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Lymphocyte	2nd most common,smallest =large dark nucleus =2x size of RBC *** no granules =play large role in immunity =>B cells- when stimulated by bacteria and toxins they differentiate into plasma cells ==> plasma cells then secret antibodies specific for microorganism => Tcells directly attack virus infected or tumor cells
Monocytes	4-8%,largest =distinct kidney shaped nucleus *** no granules =differentiate into macrophages which aid in phagocytosis
Life History of WBC	production is called=leukopiesis -takes place in Red bone marrow
Platelets	(thrombocytes) structure-cell fragments derived from the breakup of MegaKarocytes -surface has stick glycoproteins,causes them to stick to each other -cytoplasmic granules contain chemicals that facilitate clotting

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Hemostasis	stopping flow of blood,occurs in 3 phases
1st hemostasis (vascular spasm)	-immediate but temporary closure of damaged B.V. to decrease Blood flow =due to reflexive contraction of smooth muscle w/in vessel wall -triggered by direct injury to vessel =injury causes release of endothelin from endothelial cells. -also be triggered by nervous system local pain receptors are stimulated
2nd hemostasis (Platelet plug formation)	accumulation of platelets at injury site, occurs in 3 steps 1.platelet adhesion 2.platelet release rxn 3.platelet aggregation ***explained in following note cards
Step 1 Platelet plug formation (platelet adhesion)	->injured endothelial cells produce the protein VON Willebrand factor =>adheres the platelets to collagen in B.V. that has been exposed due to injury,uninjured B.V. collagen not exposed

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Step 2 Platelet plug formation (Platelet release rxn)	->when platelets bind to collagen , become activated and release chemicals from cytoplasmic granules(not endothel) =>ADP & Thromboxane A2 which recruit more platelets to injury site
Step 3 Platelet plug formation (Platelet aggregation)	->the plasma protein fibrinogen diffuses into area and facilitates binding of platelets together -> PGI2(prostaglandin)-released from damaged endothelial cells limits the aggregation to only the injury area.
3rd Hemostasis (coagulation)	dependent on clotting factors/chemicals in bld. Prothrombin----prothrom activator---> Thrombin fibrinogen----thrombin(activates)--->fibrin
Prothrombin	plasma protein made in liver -always around but not active

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prothrombin activator	released by damaged endothelial cells
Fibrinogen	inactive but always around
fibrin	glue that binds platelets
Hemostasis (Fibrinolysis)	endothelial cells around clot released a protein called Tissue Plasminogen Activator Plasminogen----TPA----> plasmin =plasmin hydrolyzes fibrin holding clot together(dissolves)

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THE HEART	location-thoracic cavity btw lungs -2/3s of the hearts mass is lft of sternum
mediastinum	midline partition formed by the heart,trachea, and esophagus
FXNs of HEART	-generates Blood pressure(BP) needed to propel bld through B.V. -separates pulmonary circulation(R) from systemic circulation(L) -can change rate and force depending on metabolic needs of tissue
Anatomy OF Heart (pericardial sac)	dbl layered closed sac surrounding heart -outermost layer in fibrous pericardium -serous pericardium

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Fibrous pericardium	outermost -tough fibrous connective tissue ,to prevent over distension of the heart and anchor heart w/in mediastinum
Serous pericardium	simple squamous epithelium -two layers =perietal pericardium-contact with heart cavity walls =visceral pericardium-covers surface of heart
Heart walls	3 layers of tissue - epicardium-outer -myocardium-middle layer,thick cardiac muscle cells -endocardium-innermost
Heart Chambers	2 atria and 2 ventricles -tissue separating left atrium from rt atrium is interatrial septum -tissue separating ventricles is interventricular septum

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Atria	auricles on outer heart surface of atria -allows for atria to increase filling capacity -inner post wall is smooth -inner anterior wall is ridged formed of pectinate muscles
Atria	'receiving chambers' rt. atrium receives de-oxygenated bld from 3veins: =superior vena cavae =inferior vena cavae =coronary sinus
fossa ovalis	on the rt. side of the inter atrial septum is a slight oval depression
left atrium	receives oxygenated bld from lungs via 4 pulmonary veins

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Ventricles	'distributing chambers' ***know flow
Atrioventricular valve	-allow bld flow from atria into ventricles -prevents bld from going back into atria b/c (closed) when ventricles contract. ** Tricuspid valve- on rt. side ** Bicuspid valve -on lft. side
Semilunar valves	prevent retro grade of bld allow bld to flow from ventricles to aorta and pulmonary trunk. open when ventricles contract. -but valves prevent bld from flowing back into ventricles close when ventricles relax ** pulmonary semilunar valve-btw rt. ventricle and pulmonary trunk ** Aortic semilunar valve- btw left ventricle and aorta
Histology of the HEART	-Cardiac muscle is striated muscle with sarcomeres made of actin and myosin

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Intercalated discs	cells are electrically coupled by cellular adhesions -areas of low electrical resistance that allow ions to flow quickly from cell to cell =the depolarization current can freely travel over the heart
Cardiac muscle physiology	cellular components -contractile cells -conductile cells
contractile cells	muscle cells responsible for the actual contraction (ie) muscles that have actin and myosin -makeup 99% of all cardiac cells
conductile cells	-self excitable cells that generate their own action potential =** these APs then initiate APs in the contractile cells

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Sinoatrial node	- located superiorly in the rt. atrial wall -called heart pacemaker b/c it depolarizes the fastest and starts the sequence of excitation
Internodal pathway	connection btwn SA & AV node
Atrioventricular node	located in the inferior portion of interartrial septum =depolarization is delayed here to give atria time to fully contract and empty blood into ventricles before ventricles are stimulated to contract
Bundle of HIS/AV bundles	divides into LF & RT bundle branches at interventricular septum

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PUrkinje Fibers	- penetrate heart at apex then wind superiorly toward the base -causes ventricles to contract upwards
EKG	displays a summation of all APs traveling through heart at given time. -represents electrical events which are responsible for the mechanical events of systole and diastole
heart sounds	1st -"LUBB" -AV valves closing at he start of ventricular systole 2nd -"DUPP"-SL valves closing at the start of ventricular diastole
Tachycardia	-increased heart rate -100-250 BPM

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Bradycardia	-decreased heart rate -less than 60 BPM
Arythmias	change in sequence of excitation
SA nodal block	-missing P wave -normal QRS and T wave -lowered heart rate, b/c the AV node is now the pace maker
AV nodal block	-blockage of AP through the bundle of HIS -ventricles DO NOT receive all atrial impulses -normal time btw the end of the P wave and the beginning of the QRS is ~ .16 sec ** need to know know 1st degree, 2nd degree, and 3rd degree

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Ventricular fibrillation	( V-fib) -very rapid , highly uncoordinated heart contractions -some areas of the ventricles may be contracting while others are relaxing -ventricles are never completely full nor completely empty -results in severe decreases in blood delivery to lungs and tissues; can be fatal in minutes
Cardiac Output	CO=the amount of blood pumped by the heart per min -calculated using heart rate and stroke volume = the amount of blood pumped by the heart per beat
Regulation of heart(intrinsic)	within the heart -the more the ventricular muscle stretched, the more forceful the next contraction will be -venous return=amt of bld entering the rt atrium via vena cavae -increases stroke volume -increased bld to heart ,the more that will be pumped out (increase in venous return=increased SV=increase in CO)
Extrinsic	neural regulation by the autonomic nervous system -vagal center -vasomotor center

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Vagal center	-medulla oblongata -parasymp control -rest and relaxation;decreases heart rate
vasomotor center	medulla oblongata -sympathetic control -fight or flight; increased HR
Beta Blocker	block receptors in the heart to slow down HR
Blood Vessels	closed delivery system that begins and ends at the heart

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Tunica Intima	innermost layer of endothel cells comes indirect contact with blood
Tunica Media	Middle layer composed of smooth muscle and innervated by sympathetic nervous system -vasodilation and constriction
Tunica Adventitia	outermost layer that anchors vessels to surrounding structures
Arterial system	transport O2 bld from hrt to tissue -Elastic/conducting arteries -muscular/distributing arteries -arterioles

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Definition

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