Koofers

Working...

TESTBANK•PROF RATINGS•GPA HISTORIES•FLASHCARDS•SCHEDULES•TEXTBOOKS•DEALS

Universities » University of Michigan (UM) » BIOLCHEM - Biological Chemistry » 212 - Descriptive Biochem » Flash Cards

Exam Four - Flashcards

Flashcard Deck Information

Class:	BIOLCHEM 212 - Descriptive Biochem
Subject:	Biological Chemistry
University:	University of Michigan - Ann Arbor
Term:	Fall 2009

- of -

« Previous card

Next card »

INCORRECT

CORRECT

Click Card to flip

Two types of nucleic acids

1. DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) 2. RNA (ribonucleic acid)

Click Card to flip

DNA full name, polymer of ___, function

-deoxyribonucleic acid - polymer of deoxyribonucleotides -stores genetic info

Click Card to flip

RNA full name, polymer of ___, function

- ribonucleic acid - polymer of ribonucleotides - putting genetic info to use in protein synthesis

Click Card to flip

Chromatin When is it found? What is it?

- found when cell is not actively dividing - compact tangle of DNA that is twisted around proteins called histones

Click Card to flip

Chromosome When is it found? What is it? When is it visible? How many pairs does a human have?

- when cell is actively dividing - complex of proteins and DNA - visible during cell division - human has 46 chromosomes (23 pairs)

Click Card to flip

Why does chromatin organize itself during cell division?

- to properly replicate the DNA contained in each chromosome so each new cell recieves a complete copy

Click Card to flip

Individual segments of DNA direct ___

the synthesis of a polypeptide

Click Card to flip

Gene

segment of DNA that directs the synthesis of a single polypeptide

Click Card to flip

Nucleotide 3 components

1. five membered monosaccharide ring 2. a N-containing (amine) cyclic base 3. phosphate group

Click Card to flip

___ is the polymer of nucleotides

nucleic acids

Click Card to flip

The sugar in DNA and the meaning behind the name

2-deoxyribose 2-deoxy means that an -OH group is missing from C2

Click Card to flip

Sugar in RNA

D-ribose or ribose

Click Card to flip

Three types of RNA

1. messenger RNA (mRNA) 2. transfer RNA (tRNA) 3. ribosomal RNA (rRNA)

Click Card to flip

Nucleotide Bases in DNA vs RNA

DNA- ATCG RNA- AUCG

Click Card to flip

Five types of nucleotides and their full names

T- thymine A- adenine C- Cytosine U- Uracil G- guanine

Click Card to flip

Purine Bases How many nitrogen rings? Nucleic acids in this category

two nitrogen rings Adenine and Guanine

Click Card to flip

Pyrimidine How many nitrogen rings? Nucleic acids in this category

one nitrogen ring cytosine, uracil, thymine

Click Card to flip

Nucleoside two parts

1. five carbon sugar 2. cyclic N containing (amine base) NO PHOSPHATE GROUP

Click Card to flip

Bond connecting base and sugar is called a ___

B(beta) B-N-glycosidic bond

Click Card to flip

Which is missing the -OH at C2: RNA or DNA?

DNA

Click Card to flip

endings for purine nucleic acids (A and G)

osine

Click Card to flip

endings for pyrimidine nucleic acids (C, U, T)

idine

Click Card to flip

add ___ to nucleosides and nucleotides that contain deoxyribose

deoxy-

Click Card to flip

bases are numbered (with/without) primes

without

Click Card to flip

sugars are numbered (with/without) primes

with

Click Card to flip

nucleotides are ___ of nucleosides

5' monophosphate esters

Click Card to flip

nucleotides are named by adding ___ to the end

5' monophosphate

Click Card to flip

Names of DNA nucleosides

deoxyadenosine deoxyguanosine deoxycytidine deoxythymidine

Click Card to flip

Names of RNA nucleosides

adenosine guanosine cytidine uridine

Click Card to flip

Names of DNA nucleotides and abbreviations

deoxyadenosine 5'-monophosphate (dAMP) deoxyguanosine 5'-monophosphate (dGMP) deoxycytidine 5'-monophosphate (dCMP) deoxythymidine 5'-monophosphate (dTMP)

Click Card to flip

Name of RNA nucleotides and abbreviations

adenosine 5'-monophosphate (AMP) guanosine 5'-monophosphate (GMP) cytidine 5'-monophosphate (CMP) Uridine 5'-monophosphate (UMP)

Click Card to flip

___ replaces ___ when going from DNA to RNA

U replaces T

Click Card to flip

nucleotides are connected by ___ between the ___ and ___

phosphate diester linkages between the C3' (-OH) and C5' (phosphate group)

Click Card to flip

5' end

phosphate group

Click Card to flip

3' end

-OH group

Click Card to flip

Comparing protein and nucleic acid backbones and side chains 5' end is to ___ as 3' end is to ___ Different bases are like diffe

5' end is to N terminus as 3' end is to C terminus different bases are like different amino acid side chains

Click Card to flip

double helix

two strands coiled around each other in a screw like fashion

Click Card to flip

double helix accounts for ___ and ___ of genetic information and ___

accounts for storage and transfer of genetic information and base pairing

Click Card to flip

A and T have ___ H bonds

Click Card to flip

C and G have ___ H bonds

Click Card to flip

Original strand goes from ___end to ___end Complementary strand goes from ___end to ___end

original is 5' to 3' complementary is 3' to 5'

Click Card to flip

What is the charge on a DNA molecule and why?

it is negatively charged because of the phosphate group

Click Card to flip

What is the charge on an RNA molecule and why?

it is negative because of the phosphate group

Click Card to flip

what is denaturing of a DNA strand? how do you denature a DNA strand?

denaturing is when you uncoil or unfold the strands heating a DNA to its "melting temperature" denatures it

Click Card to flip

Which has a higher melting point C:G or A:T?

C:G, more H bonds

Click Card to flip

Why do cells divide?

no cell has a lifespan equal to the organism so the cell must divide

Click Card to flip

How is genetic information expressed?

through sequences of the bases in a DNA strand

Click Card to flip

Genetic information is coded in ___

codons

Click Card to flip

Codons

aka triplets three nucleotides each code for specific amino acid

Click Card to flip

Three processes of duplication, transfer, and expression of genetic info:

1. replication 2. transcription 3. translation

Click Card to flip

replication

process by which replica or identical copies of DNA are made when the cell divides so that each of the two daughter cells has the same DNA

Click Card to flip

transcription

process by which genetic messages contained in DNA are read and copied

Click Card to flip

what is the product of transcription?

individual ribonucleic acids, which carry the instructions in DNA out of the nucleus to the sites of protein synthesis (mRNA)

Click Card to flip

translation

process by which genetic messages carride by RNA are decoded and used to to build proteins

Click Card to flip

helicase

enzymes that unwind helix start of replication

Click Card to flip

when DNA strands unwind:

- occurs in many places simultaneously - exposes bases, branch points, replication forks - form bubble where replication begins

Click Card to flip

___ moves into the bubbles after unwinding process

DNA polymerase

Click Card to flip

DNA polymerases function

catalyze transcription of single-stranded DNA

Click Card to flip

How many helicases do we have and why?

two: each reads the other strand and there are two strands

Click Card to flip

DNA can only be read in ___ to ___ direction

3' to 5'

Click Card to flip

leading strand

3' to 5' read easily grows continuously

Click Card to flip

lagging strand

5' to 3' read slowly grows slowly and in fragments

Click Card to flip

dNTPs full name and function

deoxynucleotide triphosphates H bond to the exposed DNA strand

Click Card to flip

after dNTPs H bond...

polymerase catalyzes bond formation between the 5' phosphate and 3' -OH of the growing strand

Click Card to flip

lagging strand replicates in segments called ___

Okazaki fragments

Click Card to flip

replication fork

point of replication

Click Card to flip

why is DNA replication semiconservative?

it produces a pair of DNA double helixes: each with one original and one newly synthesized strand

Click Card to flip

DNA has ___ nucleotides per strand

50 million

Click Card to flip

RNA has ___ nucleotides per strand

100-50,000

Click Card to flip

messenger or mRNA

encodes copy of genetic info from DNA "blueprints" for protein synthesis, directs protein synthesis

Click Card to flip

transfer or tRNA

carries amino acids for incorporation into protein amino acids transported into position for protein synthesis

Click Card to flip

ribosomal or rRNA

component of ribosomes sites of protein synthesis

Click Card to flip

hnRNA full name definition

heterogeneous nuclear RNA initially synthesized mRNA strand containing introns AND exons

Click Card to flip

introns definition removed by: possible functions

nucleotide sequence in mRNA that DOES NOT code for protein removed by splicosomes before mRNA proceeds to protein synthesis spacers, leftovers, sites of regulatory sequences, maintain structure

Click Card to flip

exons

nucleotide sequence in gene that codes for part of a protein carries info that directs and codes for the protein

Click Card to flip

RNA synthesis is ___

transcription

Click Card to flip

RNA transcription basic description

small section of DNA helix unwinds bases of two strands exposed NTPs H bond

Click Card to flip

template strand

3' to 5' mRNA is opposite of this

Click Card to flip

informational strand

5' to 3' mRNA strand is same as this (T's replaced by U's though)

Click Card to flip

four bases generate ____ codons ___ specify amino acids ___ code for stop termination (stop codons)

64 61 3

Click Card to flip

codons are always ___ to ___

5' to 3'

Click Card to flip

genetic code

nucleotide sequence coded in triplets (codons) in mRNA that determines the sequence of amino acids in a protein and protein synthesis

Click Card to flip

stop codon

signals stop in synthesis or transcription

Click Card to flip

three stop codons

UAA UAG UGA

Click Card to flip

___ and ___ only code for one amino acid

Tryptophan and Methyanine

Click Card to flip

virus

nucleic acid wrapped in protective protein

Click Card to flip

viruses may contain ___ or ___ (three options)

DNA or RNA, single or double strands, single or several pieces

Click Card to flip

virus doesn't contain the cellular machinery necessary for ___

replication

Click Card to flip

once a virus enters a cell, the cell ___ the virus

replicates

Click Card to flip

retorvirus aka must be...

aka RNA virus must be reverse transcribed into a double-stranded DNA

Click Card to flip

___ has the highest mutation rate

HIV-1

Click Card to flip

two drugs that fight AIDS

AZT and lamivudine

Click Card to flip

what do AIDS fighting drugs do?

inhibits a protease required for prodution of viral coat proteins

Click Card to flip

there are ___ different tRNA per cell

20+

Click Card to flip

each tRNA is designed to ___

carry a specific amino acid

Click Card to flip

tRNA structure in 2D and 3D what are on the two ends?

2D- cloverleaf 3D- L shaped amino acid and anticodon on two ends

Click Card to flip

Amino acids are bonded by ___ in tRNA

ester linkage

Click Card to flip

Ester linkage is between ___ and ___

-COOH of amino acid and -OH of ribose at 3' end of tRNA chain

Click Card to flip

Synthetase enzymes function

connect each amino acid with its partner tRNA

Click Card to flip

Anticodon definition, location, designated to ___

sequence of three ribonucleotides on tRNA that recognizes the complementary sequence ( the codon) on the mRNA located at end of tRNA structure designated to particular amino acid that the tRNA carries

Click Card to flip

three stages of protein synthesis

1. initiation 2. elongation 3. termination

Click Card to flip

initiation parts that come together signal complete when...

mRNA, first tRNA, and small subunit of ribosome come together start signal complete when large ribosomal subunit joins the small one second tRNA is just approaching

Click Card to flip

start signal where is it found? what is the codon for it? (symbol and name)

found on 5' end of mRNA first codon AUG or methianine (but not all AUG's are start codons)

Click Card to flip

post-translational modification

removes start signal from chain initiation if not needed

Click Card to flip

elongation starts at ___ ends at ___ bond what happens to first tRNA? ribosome moves one codon to the ___

starts when second tRNA binds, ends when stop codon reached peptide bond forms between amino acid one and two first tRNA is released ribosome moves one codon to right tRNA with next amino acid arrives ect.

Click Card to flip

single mRNA can be read ___ by ___

simultaneously by many ribosomes

Click Card to flip

termination starts when ___ cleavage of ___ parts that seperate ___ is degraded

"stop codon" signals that synthesis of the protein is completed and translation has ended cleavage of polypeptide chain from last tRNA mRNA, large and small ribosomal units seperate mRNA degraded

Click Card to flip

transcription is ___ to ___

DNA to mRNA

Click Card to flip

translation is ___ to ___

mRNA to polypeptide

Click Card to flip

between transcription and translation, mRNA leaves the ___ and goes to the ___

nucleus ribosome

Click Card to flip

"charged tRNA" contains ___

amino acids

Click Card to flip

translocation

movement of ribosome, one codon at a time, along the mRNA during elongation

Click Card to flip

two organizations trying to map the human genome

1. Human Genome Project 2. Celera Genomics

Click Card to flip

human genome project

uses maps of increasingly finer resolution goal is to understand the genetic makeup of humans

Click Card to flip

four steps of human genome project

1. genetic map 2. physical map 3. overlapping clones 4. nucleotide sequence

Click Card to flip

Celera Genomics

random approach in which they fragment DNA and then rely on instrumental and computer-driven techniques to establish the sequence

Click Card to flip

mapping of human will aid in the development of two things:

1. medicines 2. aspects of health care

Click Card to flip

homologs

organisms that are related, or homologous, to those in humans

Click Card to flip

advantages of conducting research in model organisms:

they are nonhuman small size short generation time small genome amenable to genetic and molecular manipulation

Click Card to flip

ideogram

drawing that shows location of banding visible in electron micrographs

Click Card to flip

genetic map

shows physical location of markers

Click Card to flip

markers

identifiable physical locations on either introns or exons that are known to be inherited

Click Card to flip

physical map

refines distance between markers to about 100,000 base pairs

Click Card to flip

clones

identical copies of organisms, cells, or DNA segments from a single ancestor

Click Card to flip

Four roles of noncoding DNA

1. telomeres 2. centromeres 3. introns 4. regulators

Click Card to flip

telomeres location definition function

ends of chromosomes series of a repeating group of nucleotides (TTAGGG)n protect ends from breakage, bind to other chromosomes, change the nucleotide sequence

Click Card to flip

telomerase definition active in ... declines in activity with ... telomere shortening... cancer...

enzyme responsible for adding telomeres to DNA active in young cells declines in activity with aging telomere shortening = natural aging telomerase remains active then cell will not age, continue to divide like in cancer

Click Card to flip

centromeres location function

central regions of chromosomes constrictions that appear in duplicated chromosomes during cell division that are important in alignment

Click Card to flip

introns definition possible functions

nucleotide sequence that does not code folding, regulation

Click Card to flip

regulators determines when...

regulatory regions that determine when a gene is turned on/expressed

Click Card to flip

crossing over or recombination occurs between... results in...

occurs between two arms of chromosome result in mutations

Click Card to flip

which is worse, an error in DNA or RNA synthesis and why?

an error in RNA synthesis may not create a serious problem because there is a large number of RNA molecules constantly being produced an error in DNA synthesis is damaging because the error is passed on when the cell divides

Click Card to flip

mutation definition caused by two things

error in base sequence that is carried along during DNA replication caused by 1. spontaneous event 2. mutagen

Click Card to flip

mutagen definition examples

external agent that can cause a mutation viruses, chemicals, and ionizing radiation

Click Card to flip

two types of mutations

1. point mutations 2. frameshift mutations

Click Card to flip

point mutations

single base/nucleotide change

Click Card to flip

frameshift mutation

number of inserted or deleted bases is not a multiple of three, so that all triplets following the mutation are read differently

Click Card to flip

three types of point mutations and definitions

1. silent- change that specifies the same amino acid 2. missense- change that specifies a different amino acid 3. nonsense- change that produces a stop codon

Click Card to flip

two types of frameshift mutations and definitions

1. insertion- addition of one or more bases, causes mutation in amino acids that are produced 2. deletion- loss of one or more bases, will change gene product

Click Card to flip

polymorphism

variation in DNA sequence within a population

Click Card to flip

SNP or "snip" full name definition most common _______ effects

Single-nucleotide polymorphism replacement of one nucleotide by another in the same location in the DNA most common single-base-pair variation in DNA and source of variations between individual human beings effect can be eye or hair color or drastic diseases effect most problematic when it causes it to become different amino acid or stop

Click Card to flip

RFLP full name definition

restriction fragment length polymorphism difference between two or more samples of DNA arising from differing locations of restriction sites

Click Card to flip

restriction enzyme aka definition acts like ___ causes ___

proteins that cut DNA or RNA at a specific nucleotide aka restriction endonuclease sequence (recogntion site) like scissor causes DNA strand/double strand to be cut into fragments

Click Card to flip

recognition site

specific nucleotide sequence

Click Card to flip

restriction site is digested by ___ and the resulting ___ are separated according to their lengths (sizes) by ___

restriction enzymes restriction fragments gel electrophoresis

Click Card to flip

RFLP can occur when ____

restriction site is lost

Click Card to flip

recombinant DNA

recombined DNA two or more DNA fragments combined together to produce a DNA not found in nature

Click Card to flip

PCR full name function

polymerase chain reaction used to exponentially amplify (increase) amount of DNA from small samples to produce enough material (DNA) for analysis or production

Click Card to flip

paul berg

recombinant DNA

Click Card to flip

Cary Mullis

PCR

Click Card to flip

Oliver Smithies

invention of electrophoresis

Click Card to flip

___ is a critical molecular tool in cloning

restriction enzyme

Click Card to flip

EcoR1 is an ___ functon produces

restriction enzyme cuts double stranded DNA produces sticky ends

Click Card to flip

sticky ends

available to match up with complementary base sequences, unpaired bases on each end of double stranded DNA make compatible ends

Click Card to flip

Sma1 is a ___ funcion produces

restriction enzyme cleaves/digests/cuts/breaks DNA produces blunt ends

Click Card to flip

blunt ends definition ___ can stick them together

don't stick together well ligases stick them together

Click Card to flip

plasmid vectors aka type of ___ process

aka circular double stranded DNA type of cloning vehicle vector and DNA that is to be cloned are cut to form compativle ends ligase joins the ends to form recombinant DNA

Click Card to flip

plasmid vector = ___ + ___ +___ + ___

bacterial plasmid EcoR1 Gene DNA ligase

Click Card to flip

___ can be produced from DNA using a ___

protein expression vector

Click Card to flip

promoter

promotes production of gene products

Click Card to flip

inducible promoter

indicates it is possible to regulate the promotor

Click Card to flip

inducible promoter can regulate ___

amount and timing of protein expression

Click Card to flip

inducible promoters are activated by ____

physical or chemical means

Click Card to flip

PCR uses ___ to amplify DNA molecules

primers

Click Card to flip

primers

short lengths of nucleic acid called oligonucleotides or oligos

Click Card to flip

PCR can be automated by using ___

heat stable polymerase heat used to unwind/denature DNA strands allow primers to anneal and be extended by polymerase

Click Card to flip

Three steps of PCR technique and temperatures for each step

1. Denaturation (95 degrees C) 2. Annealing (-50 degrees C) 3. Extension (72 degrees C)

Click Card to flip

DNA fingerprinting relies on ___

restriction endonuclease to recognize and cut the given VNTRs

Click Card to flip

VNTRs full name definition

variable number tandem repeats repetitive patterns used to characterize and identify DNA

Click Card to flip

four steps of DNA fingerprinting

1. cut DNA 2. seperate fragments by electrophoresis 3. transfer DNA fragments onto a support 4. hybridize (bind nucleic acids together) the DNA

Click Card to flip

Fragments with a ___ using an ___ to identigy the VNTRs

probe oligo

Click Card to flip

probability of identical fingerprint match

one in 1.5 million

Click Card to flip

biotechnology

application of biological and biochem research to develop products that improve health

Click Card to flip

bioinformatics

use of computers to manage and interpret genomic info make predictions about bio systems study genes, drug design, drug development

Click Card to flip

functional genomics

use of genome sequence to solve bio problems

Click Card to flip

comparitive genomics

comparison of the genome sequence of different organisms to discover regions with similar function and perhaps similar evolutionary origins

Click Card to flip

proteomics

study of set of proteins coded for by a genome or synthesized within a type of cell quest of understanding role of each protein in healthy or diseased conditions drug design

Click Card to flip

pharmacogenetics

matching of drugs to individuals based on content of their personal genome in order to avoid administration of drugs that are ineffective or toxic focuses on drugs most effective for that individual

Click Card to flip

toxicogenomics

combines genomics and bioinformatics in studying how toxic agents affect genes and screening possibly harmful agents

Click Card to flip

genetic engineering

alteration of genetic material of cell or organism make organism produce new substances or functions ex: introduce gene that causes bacteria to produce desired protein or allow crop plant to withstand effects of a pesticide

Click Card to flip

gene therapy

alteration of individuals genetic makeup with goal of curing or preventing disease

Click Card to flip

bioethics

ethical implications of how knowledge of the human genome is used

Click Card to flip

genomics

study of whole sets of genes and their functions

Click Card to flip

plant genomics definition and three examples

enhances the ability of agriculture to produce crops and their quality golden rice, soybeans, corn

Click Card to flip

DNA chip definition flurescence process

solid support containing large number of short-single-stranded DNA of known composition sample to be screened is labeled with fluorescent tag and applied to chip sample bonds to DNA segment with complementary nucleic acid sequences fluorescence recoreded to discover where bonding occurs and what nucleic acids variations are present

Click Card to flip

DNA is located in the cell ___

nucleus

Click Card to flip

tRNA is associated with what part of the cell?

ribosome

Click Card to flip

backbone of nucleic acid molecule:

alternating sugar and phosphate groups linked by phosphate ester bonds

Click Card to flip

process in which RNA is produced from DNA

transcription

Click Card to flip

these are associated with replication of DNA

DNA ligase, h bonds, replication forks

Click Card to flip

correct order of events after initiation of protein synthesis:

tRNA binding with ribosome, peptide bond formation, translocation, termination

Click Card to flip

three things associated with recombinant DNA

plasmids, sticky ends, polymerase

Click Card to flip

molecular element that induces expression is:

inducible promoter

Click Card to flip

chromosome

complex of DNA and histones formed in cell nucleus before cell division

Click Card to flip

function of DNA ligase

ligate molecules

Click Card to flip

oligo

is an oligonucleotide used as a probe

Click Card to flip

hybridization

molecules bind together important in probing microarrays between oligo and DNA

Click Card to flip

___ is the study of ___ differences in drug metabolism and response

pharmacogenetics inherited

Click Card to flip

___ are defined by the presence or absence of a ___

restriction fragment length polymorphisms restriction site

Click Card to flip

___ undergo breakage and exchange segments of DNA known as ___

chromosome arms crossing over/recombination

Click Card to flip

a model organism ___

contains fewer genes than humans used to investigate human health/disease

Click Card to flip

microarray

set of DNA molecules on a small template that can be probed

Click Card to flip

homolog

protein similar between fruitfly and humans

Click Card to flip

PCR amplifies ___ and ___

small amounts of protein and DNA uses primers that bind to templates to produce new molecules

Click Card to flip

heat stable polymerase is used in ___ and found in___

PCR thermal springs

- INCORRECT - CORRECT - SKIPPED

Shuffle Remaining Cards Show Definitions First Take Quiz (NEW)

Hide Keyboard shortcuts

Next card

Previous card

Mark correct

Mark incorrect

Flip card

Start Over

Shuffle

Mode: CARDS LIST ? pages

PRINT EXIT

Two types of nucleic acids	1. DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) 2. RNA (ribonucleic acid)
DNA full name, polymer of ___, function	-deoxyribonucleic acid - polymer of deoxyribonucleotides -stores genetic info
RNA full name, polymer of ___, function	- ribonucleic acid - polymer of ribonucleotides - putting genetic info to use in protein synthesis
Chromatin When is it found? What is it?	- found when cell is not actively dividing - compact tangle of DNA that is twisted around proteins called histones

Generated by

Koofers.com

Chromosome When is it found? What is it? When is it visible? How many pairs does a human have?	- when cell is actively dividing - complex of proteins and DNA - visible during cell division - human has 46 chromosomes (23 pairs)
Why does chromatin organize itself during cell division?	- to properly replicate the DNA contained in each chromosome so each new cell recieves a complete copy
Individual segments of DNA direct ___	the synthesis of a polypeptide
Gene	segment of DNA that directs the synthesis of a single polypeptide

Generated by

Koofers.com

Nucleotide 3 components	1. five membered monosaccharide ring 2. a N-containing (amine) cyclic base 3. phosphate group
___ is the polymer of nucleotides	nucleic acids
The sugar in DNA and the meaning behind the name	2-deoxyribose 2-deoxy means that an -OH group is missing from C2
Sugar in RNA	D-ribose or ribose

Generated by

Koofers.com

Three types of RNA	1. messenger RNA (mRNA) 2. transfer RNA (tRNA) 3. ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
Nucleotide Bases in DNA vs RNA	DNA- ATCG RNA- AUCG
Five types of nucleotides and their full names	T- thymine A- adenine C- Cytosine U- Uracil G- guanine
Purine Bases How many nitrogen rings? Nucleic acids in this category	two nitrogen rings Adenine and Guanine

Generated by

Koofers.com

Pyrimidine How many nitrogen rings? Nucleic acids in this category	one nitrogen ring cytosine, uracil, thymine
Nucleoside two parts	1. five carbon sugar 2. cyclic N containing (amine base) NO PHOSPHATE GROUP
Bond connecting base and sugar is called a ___	B(beta) B-N-glycosidic bond
Which is missing the -OH at C2: RNA or DNA?	DNA

Generated by

Koofers.com

endings for purine nucleic acids (A and G)	osine
endings for pyrimidine nucleic acids (C, U, T)	idine
add ___ to nucleosides and nucleotides that contain deoxyribose	deoxy-
bases are numbered (with/without) primes	without

Generated by

Koofers.com

sugars are numbered (with/without) primes	with
nucleotides are ___ of nucleosides	5' monophosphate esters
nucleotides are named by adding ___ to the end	5' monophosphate
Names of DNA nucleosides	deoxyadenosine deoxyguanosine deoxycytidine deoxythymidine

Generated by

Koofers.com

Names of RNA nucleosides	adenosine guanosine cytidine uridine
Names of DNA nucleotides and abbreviations	deoxyadenosine 5'-monophosphate (dAMP) deoxyguanosine 5'-monophosphate (dGMP) deoxycytidine 5'-monophosphate (dCMP) deoxythymidine 5'-monophosphate (dTMP)
Name of RNA nucleotides and abbreviations	adenosine 5'-monophosphate (AMP) guanosine 5'-monophosphate (GMP) cytidine 5'-monophosphate (CMP) Uridine 5'-monophosphate (UMP)
___ replaces ___ when going from DNA to RNA	U replaces T

Generated by

Koofers.com

nucleotides are connected by ___ between the ___ and ___	phosphate diester linkages between the C3' (-OH) and C5' (phosphate group)
5' end	phosphate group
3' end	-OH group
Comparing protein and nucleic acid backbones and side chains 5' end is to ___ as 3' end is to ___ Different bases are like diffe	5' end is to N terminus as 3' end is to C terminus different bases are like different amino acid side chains

Generated by

Koofers.com

double helix	two strands coiled around each other in a screw like fashion
double helix accounts for ___ and ___ of genetic information and ___	accounts for storage and transfer of genetic information and base pairing
A and T have ___ H bonds	2
C and G have ___ H bonds	3

Generated by

Koofers.com

Original strand goes from ___end to ___end Complementary strand goes from ___end to ___end	original is 5' to 3' complementary is 3' to 5'
What is the charge on a DNA molecule and why?	it is negatively charged because of the phosphate group
What is the charge on an RNA molecule and why?	it is negative because of the phosphate group
what is denaturing of a DNA strand? how do you denature a DNA strand?	denaturing is when you uncoil or unfold the strands heating a DNA to its "melting temperature" denatures it

Generated by

Koofers.com

Which has a higher melting point C:G or A:T?	C:G, more H bonds
Why do cells divide?	no cell has a lifespan equal to the organism so the cell must divide
How is genetic information expressed?	through sequences of the bases in a DNA strand
Genetic information is coded in ___	codons

Generated by

Koofers.com

Codons	aka triplets three nucleotides each code for specific amino acid
Three processes of duplication, transfer, and expression of genetic info:	1. replication 2. transcription 3. translation
replication	process by which replica or identical copies of DNA are made when the cell divides so that each of the two daughter cells has the same DNA
transcription	process by which genetic messages contained in DNA are read and copied

Generated by

Koofers.com

what is the product of transcription?	individual ribonucleic acids, which carry the instructions in DNA out of the nucleus to the sites of protein synthesis (mRNA)
translation	process by which genetic messages carride by RNA are decoded and used to to build proteins
helicase	enzymes that unwind helix start of replication
when DNA strands unwind:	- occurs in many places simultaneously - exposes bases, branch points, replication forks - form bubble where replication begins

Generated by

Koofers.com

___ moves into the bubbles after unwinding process	DNA polymerase
DNA polymerases function	catalyze transcription of single-stranded DNA
How many helicases do we have and why?	two: each reads the other strand and there are two strands
DNA can only be read in ___ to ___ direction	3' to 5'

Generated by

Koofers.com

leading strand	3' to 5' read easily grows continuously
lagging strand	5' to 3' read slowly grows slowly and in fragments
dNTPs full name and function	deoxynucleotide triphosphates H bond to the exposed DNA strand
after dNTPs H bond...	polymerase catalyzes bond formation between the 5' phosphate and 3' -OH of the growing strand

Generated by

Koofers.com

lagging strand replicates in segments called ___	Okazaki fragments
replication fork	point of replication
why is DNA replication semiconservative?	it produces a pair of DNA double helixes: each with one original and one newly synthesized strand
DNA has ___ nucleotides per strand	50 million

Generated by

Koofers.com

RNA has ___ nucleotides per strand	100-50,000
messenger or mRNA	encodes copy of genetic info from DNA "blueprints" for protein synthesis, directs protein synthesis
transfer or tRNA	carries amino acids for incorporation into protein amino acids transported into position for protein synthesis
ribosomal or rRNA	component of ribosomes sites of protein synthesis

Generated by

Koofers.com

hnRNA full name definition	heterogeneous nuclear RNA initially synthesized mRNA strand containing introns AND exons
introns definition removed by: possible functions	nucleotide sequence in mRNA that DOES NOT code for protein removed by splicosomes before mRNA proceeds to protein synthesis spacers, leftovers, sites of regulatory sequences, maintain structure
exons	nucleotide sequence in gene that codes for part of a protein carries info that directs and codes for the protein
RNA synthesis is ___	transcription

Generated by

Koofers.com

RNA transcription basic description	small section of DNA helix unwinds bases of two strands exposed NTPs H bond
template strand	3' to 5' mRNA is opposite of this
informational strand	5' to 3' mRNA strand is same as this (T's replaced by U's though)
four bases generate ____ codons ___ specify amino acids ___ code for stop termination (stop codons)	64 61 3

Generated by

Koofers.com

codons are always ___ to ___	5' to 3'
genetic code	nucleotide sequence coded in triplets (codons) in mRNA that determines the sequence of amino acids in a protein and protein synthesis
stop codon	signals stop in synthesis or transcription
three stop codons	UAA UAG UGA

Generated by

Koofers.com

___ and ___ only code for one amino acid	Tryptophan and Methyanine
virus	nucleic acid wrapped in protective protein
viruses may contain ___ or ___ (three options)	DNA or RNA, single or double strands, single or several pieces
virus doesn't contain the cellular machinery necessary for ___	replication

Generated by

Koofers.com

once a virus enters a cell, the cell ___ the virus	replicates
retorvirus aka must be...	aka RNA virus must be reverse transcribed into a double-stranded DNA
___ has the highest mutation rate	HIV-1
two drugs that fight AIDS	AZT and lamivudine

Generated by

Koofers.com

what do AIDS fighting drugs do?	inhibits a protease required for prodution of viral coat proteins
there are ___ different tRNA per cell	20+
each tRNA is designed to ___	carry a specific amino acid
tRNA structure in 2D and 3D what are on the two ends?	2D- cloverleaf 3D- L shaped amino acid and anticodon on two ends

Generated by

Koofers.com

Amino acids are bonded by ___ in tRNA	ester linkage
Ester linkage is between ___ and ___	-COOH of amino acid and -OH of ribose at 3' end of tRNA chain
Synthetase enzymes function	connect each amino acid with its partner tRNA
Anticodon definition, location, designated to ___	sequence of three ribonucleotides on tRNA that recognizes the complementary sequence ( the codon) on the mRNA located at end of tRNA structure designated to particular amino acid that the tRNA carries

Generated by

Koofers.com

three stages of protein synthesis	1. initiation 2. elongation 3. termination
initiation parts that come together signal complete when...	mRNA, first tRNA, and small subunit of ribosome come together start signal complete when large ribosomal subunit joins the small one second tRNA is just approaching
start signal where is it found? what is the codon for it? (symbol and name)	found on 5' end of mRNA first codon AUG or methianine (but not all AUG's are start codons)
post-translational modification	removes start signal from chain initiation if not needed

Generated by

Koofers.com

elongation starts at ___ ends at ___ bond what happens to first tRNA? ribosome moves one codon to the ___	starts when second tRNA binds, ends when stop codon reached peptide bond forms between amino acid one and two first tRNA is released ribosome moves one codon to right tRNA with next amino acid arrives ect.
single mRNA can be read ___ by ___	simultaneously by many ribosomes
termination starts when ___ cleavage of ___ parts that seperate ___ is degraded	"stop codon" signals that synthesis of the protein is completed and translation has ended cleavage of polypeptide chain from last tRNA mRNA, large and small ribosomal units seperate mRNA degraded
transcription is ___ to ___	DNA to mRNA

Generated by

Koofers.com

translation is ___ to ___	mRNA to polypeptide
between transcription and translation, mRNA leaves the ___ and goes to the ___	nucleus ribosome
"charged tRNA" contains ___	amino acids
translocation	movement of ribosome, one codon at a time, along the mRNA during elongation

Generated by

Koofers.com

two organizations trying to map the human genome	1. Human Genome Project 2. Celera Genomics
human genome project	uses maps of increasingly finer resolution goal is to understand the genetic makeup of humans
four steps of human genome project	1. genetic map 2. physical map 3. overlapping clones 4. nucleotide sequence
Celera Genomics	random approach in which they fragment DNA and then rely on instrumental and computer-driven techniques to establish the sequence

Generated by

Koofers.com

mapping of human will aid in the development of two things:	1. medicines 2. aspects of health care
homologs	organisms that are related, or homologous, to those in humans
advantages of conducting research in model organisms:	they are nonhuman small size short generation time small genome amenable to genetic and molecular manipulation
ideogram	drawing that shows location of banding visible in electron micrographs

Generated by

Koofers.com

genetic map	shows physical location of markers
markers	identifiable physical locations on either introns or exons that are known to be inherited
physical map	refines distance between markers to about 100,000 base pairs
clones	identical copies of organisms, cells, or DNA segments from a single ancestor

Generated by

Koofers.com

Four roles of noncoding DNA	1. telomeres 2. centromeres 3. introns 4. regulators
telomeres location definition function	ends of chromosomes series of a repeating group of nucleotides (TTAGGG)n protect ends from breakage, bind to other chromosomes, change the nucleotide sequence
telomerase definition active in ... declines in activity with ... telomere shortening... cancer...	enzyme responsible for adding telomeres to DNA active in young cells declines in activity with aging telomere shortening = natural aging telomerase remains active then cell will not age, continue to divide like in cancer
centromeres location function	central regions of chromosomes constrictions that appear in duplicated chromosomes during cell division that are important in alignment

Generated by

Koofers.com

introns definition possible functions	nucleotide sequence that does not code folding, regulation
regulators determines when...	regulatory regions that determine when a gene is turned on/expressed
crossing over or recombination occurs between... results in...	occurs between two arms of chromosome result in mutations
which is worse, an error in DNA or RNA synthesis and why?	an error in RNA synthesis may not create a serious problem because there is a large number of RNA molecules constantly being produced an error in DNA synthesis is damaging because the error is passed on when the cell divides

Generated by

Koofers.com

mutation definition caused by two things	error in base sequence that is carried along during DNA replication caused by 1. spontaneous event 2. mutagen
mutagen definition examples	external agent that can cause a mutation viruses, chemicals, and ionizing radiation
two types of mutations	1. point mutations 2. frameshift mutations
point mutations	single base/nucleotide change

Generated by

Koofers.com

frameshift mutation	number of inserted or deleted bases is not a multiple of three, so that all triplets following the mutation are read differently
three types of point mutations and definitions	1. silent- change that specifies the same amino acid 2. missense- change that specifies a different amino acid 3. nonsense- change that produces a stop codon
two types of frameshift mutations and definitions	1. insertion- addition of one or more bases, causes mutation in amino acids that are produced 2. deletion- loss of one or more bases, will change gene product
polymorphism	variation in DNA sequence within a population

Generated by

Koofers.com

SNP or "snip" full name definition most common _______ effects	Single-nucleotide polymorphism replacement of one nucleotide by another in the same location in the DNA most common single-base-pair variation in DNA and source of variations between individual human beings effect can be eye or hair color or drastic diseases effect most problematic when it causes it to become different amino acid or stop
RFLP full name definition	restriction fragment length polymorphism difference between two or more samples of DNA arising from differing locations of restriction sites
restriction enzyme aka definition acts like ___ causes ___	proteins that cut DNA or RNA at a specific nucleotide aka restriction endonuclease sequence (recogntion site) like scissor causes DNA strand/double strand to be cut into fragments
recognition site	specific nucleotide sequence

Generated by

Koofers.com

restriction site is digested by ___ and the resulting ___ are separated according to their lengths (sizes) by ___	restriction enzymes restriction fragments gel electrophoresis
RFLP can occur when ____	restriction site is lost
recombinant DNA	recombined DNA two or more DNA fragments combined together to produce a DNA not found in nature
PCR full name function	polymerase chain reaction used to exponentially amplify (increase) amount of DNA from small samples to produce enough material (DNA) for analysis or production

Generated by

Koofers.com

paul berg	recombinant DNA
Cary Mullis	PCR
Oliver Smithies	invention of electrophoresis
___ is a critical molecular tool in cloning	restriction enzyme

Generated by

Koofers.com

EcoR1 is an ___ functon produces	restriction enzyme cuts double stranded DNA produces sticky ends
sticky ends	available to match up with complementary base sequences, unpaired bases on each end of double stranded DNA make compatible ends
Sma1 is a ___ funcion produces	restriction enzyme cleaves/digests/cuts/breaks DNA produces blunt ends
blunt ends definition ___ can stick them together	don't stick together well ligases stick them together

Generated by

Koofers.com

plasmid vectors aka type of ___ process	aka circular double stranded DNA type of cloning vehicle vector and DNA that is to be cloned are cut to form compativle ends ligase joins the ends to form recombinant DNA
plasmid vector = ___ + ___ +___ + ___	bacterial plasmid EcoR1 Gene DNA ligase
___ can be produced from DNA using a ___	protein expression vector
promoter	promotes production of gene products

Generated by

Koofers.com

inducible promoter	indicates it is possible to regulate the promotor
inducible promoter can regulate ___	amount and timing of protein expression
inducible promoters are activated by ____	physical or chemical means
PCR uses ___ to amplify DNA molecules	primers

Generated by

Koofers.com

primers	short lengths of nucleic acid called oligonucleotides or oligos
PCR can be automated by using ___	heat stable polymerase heat used to unwind/denature DNA strands allow primers to anneal and be extended by polymerase
Three steps of PCR technique and temperatures for each step	1. Denaturation (95 degrees C) 2. Annealing (-50 degrees C) 3. Extension (72 degrees C)
DNA fingerprinting relies on ___	restriction endonuclease to recognize and cut the given VNTRs

Generated by

Koofers.com

VNTRs full name definition	variable number tandem repeats repetitive patterns used to characterize and identify DNA
four steps of DNA fingerprinting	1. cut DNA 2. seperate fragments by electrophoresis 3. transfer DNA fragments onto a support 4. hybridize (bind nucleic acids together) the DNA
Fragments with a ___ using an ___ to identigy the VNTRs	probe oligo
probability of identical fingerprint match	one in 1.5 million

Generated by

Koofers.com

biotechnology	application of biological and biochem research to develop products that improve health
bioinformatics	use of computers to manage and interpret genomic info make predictions about bio systems study genes, drug design, drug development
functional genomics	use of genome sequence to solve bio problems
comparitive genomics	comparison of the genome sequence of different organisms to discover regions with similar function and perhaps similar evolutionary origins

Generated by

Koofers.com

proteomics	study of set of proteins coded for by a genome or synthesized within a type of cell quest of understanding role of each protein in healthy or diseased conditions drug design
pharmacogenetics	matching of drugs to individuals based on content of their personal genome in order to avoid administration of drugs that are ineffective or toxic focuses on drugs most effective for that individual
toxicogenomics	combines genomics and bioinformatics in studying how toxic agents affect genes and screening possibly harmful agents
genetic engineering	alteration of genetic material of cell or organism make organism produce new substances or functions ex: introduce gene that causes bacteria to produce desired protein or allow crop plant to withstand effects of a pesticide

Generated by

Koofers.com

gene therapy	alteration of individuals genetic makeup with goal of curing or preventing disease
bioethics	ethical implications of how knowledge of the human genome is used
genomics	study of whole sets of genes and their functions
plant genomics definition and three examples	enhances the ability of agriculture to produce crops and their quality golden rice, soybeans, corn

Generated by

Koofers.com

DNA chip definition flurescence process	solid support containing large number of short-single-stranded DNA of known composition sample to be screened is labeled with fluorescent tag and applied to chip sample bonds to DNA segment with complementary nucleic acid sequences fluorescence recoreded to discover where bonding occurs and what nucleic acids variations are present
DNA is located in the cell ___	nucleus
tRNA is associated with what part of the cell?	ribosome
backbone of nucleic acid molecule:	alternating sugar and phosphate groups linked by phosphate ester bonds

Generated by

Koofers.com

process in which RNA is produced from DNA	transcription
these are associated with replication of DNA	DNA ligase, h bonds, replication forks
correct order of events after initiation of protein synthesis:	tRNA binding with ribosome, peptide bond formation, translocation, termination
three things associated with recombinant DNA	plasmids, sticky ends, polymerase

Generated by

Koofers.com

molecular element that induces expression is:	inducible promoter
chromosome	complex of DNA and histones formed in cell nucleus before cell division
function of DNA ligase	ligate molecules
oligo	is an oligonucleotide used as a probe

Generated by

Koofers.com

hybridization	molecules bind together important in probing microarrays between oligo and DNA
___ is the study of ___ differences in drug metabolism and response	pharmacogenetics inherited
___ are defined by the presence or absence of a ___	restriction fragment length polymorphisms restriction site
___ undergo breakage and exchange segments of DNA known as ___	chromosome arms crossing over/recombination

Generated by

Koofers.com

a model organism ___	contains fewer genes than humans used to investigate human health/disease
microarray	set of DNA molecules on a small template that can be probed
homolog	protein similar between fruitfly and humans
PCR amplifies ___ and ___	small amounts of protein and DNA uses primers that bind to templates to produce new molecules

Generated by

Koofers.com

heat stable polymerase is used in ___ and found in___

PCR thermal springs

Generated by

Koofers.com

List View: Terms & Definitions

Hide All 205 Print

	Front	Back
	Two types of nucleic acids	1. DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) 2. RNA (ribonucleic acid)
	DNA full name, polymer of ___, function	-deoxyribonucleic acid - polymer of deoxyribonucleotides -stores genetic info
	RNA full name, polymer of ___, function	- ribonucleic acid - polymer of ribonucleotides - putting genetic info to use in protein synthesis
	Chromatin When is it found? What is it?	- found when cell is not actively dividing - compact tangle of DNA that is twisted around proteins called histones
	Chromosome When is it found? What is it? When is it visible? How many pairs does a human have?	- when cell is actively dividing - complex of proteins and DNA - visible during cell division - human has 46 chromosomes (23 pairs)
	Why does chromatin organize itself during cell division?	- to properly replicate the DNA contained in each chromosome so each new cell recieves a complete copy
	Individual segments of DNA direct ___	the synthesis of a polypeptide
	Gene	segment of DNA that directs the synthesis of a single polypeptide
	Nucleotide 3 components	1. five membered monosaccharide ring 2. a N-containing (amine) cyclic base 3. phosphate group
	___ is the polymer of nucleotides	nucleic acids
	The sugar in DNA and the meaning behind the name	2-deoxyribose 2-deoxy means that an -OH group is missing from C2
	Sugar in RNA	D-ribose or ribose
	Three types of RNA	1. messenger RNA (mRNA) 2. transfer RNA (tRNA) 3. ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
	Nucleotide Bases in DNA vs RNA	DNA- ATCG RNA- AUCG
	Five types of nucleotides and their full names	T- thymine A- adenine C- Cytosine U- Uracil G- guanine
	Purine Bases How many nitrogen rings? Nucleic acids in this category	two nitrogen rings Adenine and Guanine
	Pyrimidine How many nitrogen rings? Nucleic acids in this category	one nitrogen ring cytosine, uracil, thymine
	Nucleoside two parts	1. five carbon sugar 2. cyclic N containing (amine base) NO PHOSPHATE GROUP
	Bond connecting base and sugar is called a ___	B(beta) B-N-glycosidic bond
	Which is missing the -OH at C2: RNA or DNA?	DNA
	endings for purine nucleic acids (A and G)	osine
	endings for pyrimidine nucleic acids (C, U, T)	idine
	add ___ to nucleosides and nucleotides that contain deoxyribose	deoxy-
	bases are numbered (with/without) primes	without
	sugars are numbered (with/without) primes	with
	nucleotides are ___ of nucleosides	5' monophosphate esters
	nucleotides are named by adding ___ to the end	5' monophosphate
	Names of DNA nucleosides	deoxyadenosine deoxyguanosine deoxycytidine deoxythymidine
	Names of RNA nucleosides	adenosine guanosine cytidine uridine
	Names of DNA nucleotides and abbreviations	deoxyadenosine 5'-monophosphate (dAMP) deoxyguanosine 5'-monophosphate (dGMP) deoxycytidine 5'-monophosphate (dCMP) deoxythymidine 5'-monophosphate (dTMP)
	Name of RNA nucleotides and abbreviations	adenosine 5'-monophosphate (AMP) guanosine 5'-monophosphate (GMP) cytidine 5'-monophosphate (CMP) Uridine 5'-monophosphate (UMP)
	___ replaces ___ when going from DNA to RNA	U replaces T
	nucleotides are connected by ___ between the ___ and ___	phosphate diester linkages between the C3' (-OH) and C5' (phosphate group)
	5' end	phosphate group
	3' end	-OH group
	Comparing protein and nucleic acid backbones and side chains 5' end is to ___ as 3' end is to ___ Different bases are like diffe	5' end is to N terminus as 3' end is to C terminus different bases are like different amino acid side chains
	double helix	two strands coiled around each other in a screw like fashion
	double helix accounts for ___ and ___ of genetic information and ___	accounts for storage and transfer of genetic information and base pairing
	A and T have ___ H bonds	2
	C and G have ___ H bonds	3
	Original strand goes from ___end to ___end Complementary strand goes from ___end to ___end	original is 5' to 3' complementary is 3' to 5'
	What is the charge on a DNA molecule and why?	it is negatively charged because of the phosphate group
	What is the charge on an RNA molecule and why?	it is negative because of the phosphate group
	what is denaturing of a DNA strand? how do you denature a DNA strand?	denaturing is when you uncoil or unfold the strands heating a DNA to its "melting temperature" denatures it
	Which has a higher melting point C:G or A:T?	C:G, more H bonds
	Why do cells divide?	no cell has a lifespan equal to the organism so the cell must divide
	How is genetic information expressed?	through sequences of the bases in a DNA strand
	Genetic information is coded in ___	codons
	Codons	aka triplets three nucleotides each code for specific amino acid
	Three processes of duplication, transfer, and expression of genetic info:	1. replication 2. transcription 3. translation
	replication	process by which replica or identical copies of DNA are made when the cell divides so that each of the two daughter cells has the same DNA
	transcription	process by which genetic messages contained in DNA are read and copied
	what is the product of transcription?	individual ribonucleic acids, which carry the instructions in DNA out of the nucleus to the sites of protein synthesis (mRNA)
	translation	process by which genetic messages carride by RNA are decoded and used to to build proteins
	helicase	enzymes that unwind helix start of replication
	when DNA strands unwind:	- occurs in many places simultaneously - exposes bases, branch points, replication forks - form bubble where replication begins
	___ moves into the bubbles after unwinding process	DNA polymerase
	DNA polymerases function	catalyze transcription of single-stranded DNA
	How many helicases do we have and why?	two: each reads the other strand and there are two strands
	DNA can only be read in ___ to ___ direction	3' to 5'
	leading strand	3' to 5' read easily grows continuously
	lagging strand	5' to 3' read slowly grows slowly and in fragments
	dNTPs full name and function	deoxynucleotide triphosphates H bond to the exposed DNA strand
	after dNTPs H bond...	polymerase catalyzes bond formation between the 5' phosphate and 3' -OH of the growing strand
	lagging strand replicates in segments called ___	Okazaki fragments
	replication fork	point of replication
	why is DNA replication semiconservative?	it produces a pair of DNA double helixes: each with one original and one newly synthesized strand
	DNA has ___ nucleotides per strand	50 million
	RNA has ___ nucleotides per strand	100-50,000
	messenger or mRNA	encodes copy of genetic info from DNA "blueprints" for protein synthesis, directs protein synthesis
	transfer or tRNA	carries amino acids for incorporation into protein amino acids transported into position for protein synthesis
	ribosomal or rRNA	component of ribosomes sites of protein synthesis
	hnRNA full name definition	heterogeneous nuclear RNA initially synthesized mRNA strand containing introns AND exons
	introns definition removed by: possible functions	nucleotide sequence in mRNA that DOES NOT code for protein removed by splicosomes before mRNA proceeds to protein synthesis spacers, leftovers, sites of regulatory sequences, maintain structure
	exons	nucleotide sequence in gene that codes for part of a protein carries info that directs and codes for the protein
	RNA synthesis is ___	transcription
	RNA transcription basic description	small section of DNA helix unwinds bases of two strands exposed NTPs H bond
	template strand	3' to 5' mRNA is opposite of this
	informational strand	5' to 3' mRNA strand is same as this (T's replaced by U's though)
	four bases generate ____ codons ___ specify amino acids ___ code for stop termination (stop codons)	64 61 3
	codons are always ___ to ___	5' to 3'
	genetic code	nucleotide sequence coded in triplets (codons) in mRNA that determines the sequence of amino acids in a protein and protein synthesis
	stop codon	signals stop in synthesis or transcription
	three stop codons	UAA UAG UGA
	___ and ___ only code for one amino acid	Tryptophan and Methyanine
	virus	nucleic acid wrapped in protective protein
	viruses may contain ___ or ___ (three options)	DNA or RNA, single or double strands, single or several pieces
	virus doesn't contain the cellular machinery necessary for ___	replication
	once a virus enters a cell, the cell ___ the virus	replicates
	retorvirus aka must be...	aka RNA virus must be reverse transcribed into a double-stranded DNA
	___ has the highest mutation rate	HIV-1
	two drugs that fight AIDS	AZT and lamivudine
	what do AIDS fighting drugs do?	inhibits a protease required for prodution of viral coat proteins
	there are ___ different tRNA per cell	20+
	each tRNA is designed to ___	carry a specific amino acid
	tRNA structure in 2D and 3D what are on the two ends?	2D- cloverleaf 3D- L shaped amino acid and anticodon on two ends
	Amino acids are bonded by ___ in tRNA	ester linkage
	Ester linkage is between ___ and ___	-COOH of amino acid and -OH of ribose at 3' end of tRNA chain
	Synthetase enzymes function	connect each amino acid with its partner tRNA
	Anticodon definition, location, designated to ___	sequence of three ribonucleotides on tRNA that recognizes the complementary sequence ( the codon) on the mRNA located at end of tRNA structure designated to particular amino acid that the tRNA carries
	three stages of protein synthesis	1. initiation 2. elongation 3. termination
	initiation parts that come together signal complete when...	mRNA, first tRNA, and small subunit of ribosome come together start signal complete when large ribosomal subunit joins the small one second tRNA is just approaching
	start signal where is it found? what is the codon for it? (symbol and name)	found on 5' end of mRNA first codon AUG or methianine (but not all AUG's are start codons)
	post-translational modification	removes start signal from chain initiation if not needed
	elongation starts at ___ ends at ___ bond what happens to first tRNA? ribosome moves one codon to the ___	starts when second tRNA binds, ends when stop codon reached peptide bond forms between amino acid one and two first tRNA is released ribosome moves one codon to right tRNA with next amino acid arrives ect.
	single mRNA can be read ___ by ___	simultaneously by many ribosomes
	termination starts when ___ cleavage of ___ parts that seperate ___ is degraded	"stop codon" signals that synthesis of the protein is completed and translation has ended cleavage of polypeptide chain from last tRNA mRNA, large and small ribosomal units seperate mRNA degraded
	transcription is ___ to ___	DNA to mRNA
	translation is ___ to ___	mRNA to polypeptide
	between transcription and translation, mRNA leaves the ___ and goes to the ___	nucleus ribosome
	"charged tRNA" contains ___	amino acids
	translocation	movement of ribosome, one codon at a time, along the mRNA during elongation
	two organizations trying to map the human genome	1. Human Genome Project 2. Celera Genomics
	human genome project	uses maps of increasingly finer resolution goal is to understand the genetic makeup of humans
	four steps of human genome project	1. genetic map 2. physical map 3. overlapping clones 4. nucleotide sequence
	Celera Genomics	random approach in which they fragment DNA and then rely on instrumental and computer-driven techniques to establish the sequence
	mapping of human will aid in the development of two things:	1. medicines 2. aspects of health care
	homologs	organisms that are related, or homologous, to those in humans
	advantages of conducting research in model organisms:	they are nonhuman small size short generation time small genome amenable to genetic and molecular manipulation
	ideogram	drawing that shows location of banding visible in electron micrographs
	genetic map	shows physical location of markers
	markers	identifiable physical locations on either introns or exons that are known to be inherited
	physical map	refines distance between markers to about 100,000 base pairs
	clones	identical copies of organisms, cells, or DNA segments from a single ancestor
	Four roles of noncoding DNA	1. telomeres 2. centromeres 3. introns 4. regulators
	telomeres location definition function	ends of chromosomes series of a repeating group of nucleotides (TTAGGG)n protect ends from breakage, bind to other chromosomes, change the nucleotide sequence
	telomerase definition active in ... declines in activity with ... telomere shortening... cancer...	enzyme responsible for adding telomeres to DNA active in young cells declines in activity with aging telomere shortening = natural aging telomerase remains active then cell will not age, continue to divide like in cancer
	centromeres location function	central regions of chromosomes constrictions that appear in duplicated chromosomes during cell division that are important in alignment
	introns definition possible functions	nucleotide sequence that does not code folding, regulation
	regulators determines when...	regulatory regions that determine when a gene is turned on/expressed
	crossing over or recombination occurs between... results in...	occurs between two arms of chromosome result in mutations
	which is worse, an error in DNA or RNA synthesis and why?	an error in RNA synthesis may not create a serious problem because there is a large number of RNA molecules constantly being produced an error in DNA synthesis is damaging because the error is passed on when the cell divides
	mutation definition caused by two things	error in base sequence that is carried along during DNA replication caused by 1. spontaneous event 2. mutagen
	mutagen definition examples	external agent that can cause a mutation viruses, chemicals, and ionizing radiation
	two types of mutations	1. point mutations 2. frameshift mutations
	point mutations	single base/nucleotide change
	frameshift mutation	number of inserted or deleted bases is not a multiple of three, so that all triplets following the mutation are read differently
	three types of point mutations and definitions	1. silent- change that specifies the same amino acid 2. missense- change that specifies a different amino acid 3. nonsense- change that produces a stop codon
	two types of frameshift mutations and definitions	1. insertion- addition of one or more bases, causes mutation in amino acids that are produced 2. deletion- loss of one or more bases, will change gene product
	polymorphism	variation in DNA sequence within a population
	SNP or "snip" full name definition most common _______ effects	Single-nucleotide polymorphism replacement of one nucleotide by another in the same location in the DNA most common single-base-pair variation in DNA and source of variations between individual human beings effect can be eye or hair color or drastic diseases effect most problematic when it causes it to become different amino acid or stop
	RFLP full name definition	restriction fragment length polymorphism difference between two or more samples of DNA arising from differing locations of restriction sites
	restriction enzyme aka definition acts like ___ causes ___	proteins that cut DNA or RNA at a specific nucleotide aka restriction endonuclease sequence (recogntion site) like scissor causes DNA strand/double strand to be cut into fragments
	recognition site	specific nucleotide sequence
	restriction site is digested by ___ and the resulting ___ are separated according to their lengths (sizes) by ___	restriction enzymes restriction fragments gel electrophoresis
	RFLP can occur when ____	restriction site is lost
	recombinant DNA	recombined DNA two or more DNA fragments combined together to produce a DNA not found in nature
	PCR full name function	polymerase chain reaction used to exponentially amplify (increase) amount of DNA from small samples to produce enough material (DNA) for analysis or production
	paul berg	recombinant DNA
	Cary Mullis	PCR
	Oliver Smithies	invention of electrophoresis
	___ is a critical molecular tool in cloning	restriction enzyme
	EcoR1 is an ___ functon produces	restriction enzyme cuts double stranded DNA produces sticky ends
	sticky ends	available to match up with complementary base sequences, unpaired bases on each end of double stranded DNA make compatible ends
	Sma1 is a ___ funcion produces	restriction enzyme cleaves/digests/cuts/breaks DNA produces blunt ends
	blunt ends definition ___ can stick them together	don't stick together well ligases stick them together
	plasmid vectors aka type of ___ process	aka circular double stranded DNA type of cloning vehicle vector and DNA that is to be cloned are cut to form compativle ends ligase joins the ends to form recombinant DNA
	plasmid vector = ___ + ___ +___ + ___	bacterial plasmid EcoR1 Gene DNA ligase
	___ can be produced from DNA using a ___	protein expression vector
	promoter	promotes production of gene products
	inducible promoter	indicates it is possible to regulate the promotor
	inducible promoter can regulate ___	amount and timing of protein expression
	inducible promoters are activated by ____	physical or chemical means
	PCR uses ___ to amplify DNA molecules	primers
	primers	short lengths of nucleic acid called oligonucleotides or oligos
	PCR can be automated by using ___	heat stable polymerase heat used to unwind/denature DNA strands allow primers to anneal and be extended by polymerase
	Three steps of PCR technique and temperatures for each step	1. Denaturation (95 degrees C) 2. Annealing (-50 degrees C) 3. Extension (72 degrees C)
	DNA fingerprinting relies on ___	restriction endonuclease to recognize and cut the given VNTRs
	VNTRs full name definition	variable number tandem repeats repetitive patterns used to characterize and identify DNA
	four steps of DNA fingerprinting	1. cut DNA 2. seperate fragments by electrophoresis 3. transfer DNA fragments onto a support 4. hybridize (bind nucleic acids together) the DNA
	Fragments with a ___ using an ___ to identigy the VNTRs	probe oligo
	probability of identical fingerprint match	one in 1.5 million
	biotechnology	application of biological and biochem research to develop products that improve health
	bioinformatics	use of computers to manage and interpret genomic info make predictions about bio systems study genes, drug design, drug development
	functional genomics	use of genome sequence to solve bio problems
	comparitive genomics	comparison of the genome sequence of different organisms to discover regions with similar function and perhaps similar evolutionary origins
	proteomics	study of set of proteins coded for by a genome or synthesized within a type of cell quest of understanding role of each protein in healthy or diseased conditions drug design
	pharmacogenetics	matching of drugs to individuals based on content of their personal genome in order to avoid administration of drugs that are ineffective or toxic focuses on drugs most effective for that individual
	toxicogenomics	combines genomics and bioinformatics in studying how toxic agents affect genes and screening possibly harmful agents
	genetic engineering	alteration of genetic material of cell or organism make organism produce new substances or functions ex: introduce gene that causes bacteria to produce desired protein or allow crop plant to withstand effects of a pesticide
	gene therapy	alteration of individuals genetic makeup with goal of curing or preventing disease
	bioethics	ethical implications of how knowledge of the human genome is used
	genomics	study of whole sets of genes and their functions
	plant genomics definition and three examples	enhances the ability of agriculture to produce crops and their quality golden rice, soybeans, corn
	DNA chip definition flurescence process	solid support containing large number of short-single-stranded DNA of known composition sample to be screened is labeled with fluorescent tag and applied to chip sample bonds to DNA segment with complementary nucleic acid sequences fluorescence recoreded to discover where bonding occurs and what nucleic acids variations are present
	DNA is located in the cell ___	nucleus
	tRNA is associated with what part of the cell?	ribosome
	backbone of nucleic acid molecule:	alternating sugar and phosphate groups linked by phosphate ester bonds
	process in which RNA is produced from DNA	transcription
	these are associated with replication of DNA	DNA ligase, h bonds, replication forks
	correct order of events after initiation of protein synthesis:	tRNA binding with ribosome, peptide bond formation, translocation, termination
	three things associated with recombinant DNA	plasmids, sticky ends, polymerase
	molecular element that induces expression is:	inducible promoter
	chromosome	complex of DNA and histones formed in cell nucleus before cell division
	function of DNA ligase	ligate molecules
	oligo	is an oligonucleotide used as a probe
	hybridization	molecules bind together important in probing microarrays between oligo and DNA
	___ is the study of ___ differences in drug metabolism and response	pharmacogenetics inherited
	___ are defined by the presence or absence of a ___	restriction fragment length polymorphisms restriction site
	___ undergo breakage and exchange segments of DNA known as ___	chromosome arms crossing over/recombination
	a model organism ___	contains fewer genes than humans used to investigate human health/disease
	microarray	set of DNA molecules on a small template that can be probed
	homolog	protein similar between fruitfly and humans
	PCR amplifies ___ and ___	small amounts of protein and DNA uses primers that bind to templates to produce new molecules
	heat stable polymerase is used in ___ and found in___	PCR thermal springs

The information provided on this site is protected by U.S. and International copyright law, and other applicable intellectual property laws, including laws covering data access and data compilations. This information is provided exclusively for the personal and academic use of students, instructors and other university personnel. Use of this information for any commercial purpose, or by any commercial entity, is expressly prohibited. This information may not, under any circumstances, be copied, modified, reused, or incorporated into any derivative works or compilations, without the prior written approval of Koofers, Inc.