Chapters 4 & 5 - Flashcards

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INCORRECT CORRECT

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Tissue

group of similar cells that usually have a common embryonic origin that function together to carry out specialized activities

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4 Basic Tissue Types

Connective, Muscle, Epithelial, Nervous

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Connective Tissues

Protect and support the body and its organs; various types bind organs together, store energy reserves as fat, and help provide the body with immunity to disease-causing organisms

not just muscles and tendons but basically all tissues that provide support (skeleton) and fill space (fat)

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Muscle Tissue

Composed of cells specialized for contraction and generation of force, in the process it generates heat

support, movement, heat generation

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Epithelial Tissue

Cover body surfaces and line hollow organs (like intestines & heart), body cavities, and ducts; also forms glands

This tissue allows the body to interact in both the internal and external environment

cells are polar; top is functional surface; bottom is where more organelles cluster; inner surface connected to basement membrane

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Nervous Tissue

Detects changes in a variety of conditions inside and outside the body and responds by generating electrical signals called nerve action potentials (nerve impulses) that activate muscular contractions and glandular secretions

controls other organs, receives and transmits information

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Epithelial and Most Types of Connective Tissue

More general in nature & have a wide distribution in the body

except for cartilage, bone, and blood

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Cell Junctions

contact points between the plasma membranes of tissue cells

5 Most Important Types:

Tight __

Adherens __

Desmosomes

Hemidesmosomes

Gap __

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Tight Junctions

consist of weblike strands of transmembrane proteins that fuse together the outer surfaces of adjacent plasma membranes to seal off passageways between adjacent cells

Cells of epithelial tissues that line the stomach, intestines, and urinary bladder have many of these

Inhibit the passage of substances between cells and prevent the contents of these organs from leaking into the blood of surrounding tissues

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Adherens Junctions

Contain plaque, a dense layer of proteins on the inside of the plasma membrane that attaches both to membrane proteins and to microfilaments of the cytoskeleton

Helps epithelial surfaces resist separation during various contractile activities, as when food moves through the intestines

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Cadherins

(of the adherens junctions)

Transmembrane glycoproteins that join the cells; each one inserts into the plaque from the opposite side of the plasma membrane, partially crosses the intercellular space (the space between the cells), and connects to the __ of another cell

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Adhesion Belts

In epithelial cells; adherens junctions often form these extensive zones

they encircle the cell similar to the way a belt encircles your waist

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Desmosomes

contain plaque and have transmembrane glycoproteins (cadherins) that extend into the intercellular space between adjacent cell membranes and attach cells to one another

does not attach to microfilaments; it attaches to elements of the cytoskeleton known as intermediate filaments, which consist of protein keratin

common among the cells that make up the epidermis and among cardiac cells of the heart

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Hemidesmosomes

resemble desmosomes, but they do not link adjacent cells

the transmembrane glycoproteins in these are integrins

they anchor cells not to each other but to the basement membrane

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Integrins

on the inside of the plasma membrane, they attach to intermediate filaments made of the protein keratin

on the outside of the plasma membrane, they attach to the protein laminin, which is present in the basement membrane

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Gap Junctions

here, connexins (membrane proteins) form tiny fluid filled tunnels that connect neighboring cells

the plasma membranes are separated by a very narrow intercellular gap (space)

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Epithelium

consists of cells arranged in continuous sheets, in either single or multiple layers

cells are tightly packed; there is little intercellular space between adjacent plasma membranes

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Functions of Epithelial Tissues

1.) selective barriers that limit or aid the transfer of substances into and out of the body

2.) secretory surfaces that release products produced by the cells onto their free surfaces

3.) protective surfaces that resist the abrasive influences of the environment

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Apical (free) Surface

Of the epithelial cell faces the body surface, a body cavity, the lumen (interior space) of an internal organ, or a tubular duct that receives cell secretions

may contain cilia or microvilli

most superficial of layers

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Lateral Surfaces

Of an epithelial cell, they face the adjacent cells on either side, may contain tight junctions, adherens junctions, desmosomes, and/or gap junctions

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Basal Surface

Of an epithelial cell, opposite the apical surface; of the deepest layer of epithelial cells adhere to extracellular materials such as the basement membrane

deepest of layers

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Basement Membrane

a thin extracellular layer that commonly consists of two layers, the basal lamina and reticular lamina

they attach to and support overlying epithelial tissue

they form a surface along which epithelial cells migrate during growth or wound healing, restrict passage of larger molecules between epithelial and connective tissue, and participate in filtration of blood in the kidneys

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Basal Lamina

closer to and secreted by the epithelial cells; it contains proteins such as laminin and collagen, as well as glycoproteins and proteoglycans

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Reticular Lamina

closer to the underlying connective tissue and contains proteins such as collagen produced by connective tissue cells called fibroblasts

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Avascular

relying on the blood vessels of the adjacent connective tissue to bring nutrients and remove wastes (epithelial tissues); exchange of substances between epithelial and connective tissues occurs by diffusion

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Simple Epithelium

a single layer of cells that functions in diffusion, osmosis, filtration, secretion, or absorption

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Secretion

the production and release of substances such as mucus, sweat, or enzymes

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Absorption

The intake of fluids or other substances such as digested food from the intestinal tract

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Pseudostratified Epithelium

appears to have multiple layers of cells because the cell nuclei lie at different levels and not all cells reach the apical surface, but it is actually a single epithelium because all its cells rest of the basement membrane

cells that do extend to the apical surface may contain cilia; others (goblet cells) secrete mucus

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Stratified Epithelium

consists of two or more layers of cells that protect underlying tissues in locations where there is considerable wear and tear

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The arrangement of cells in layers & The shapes of the cells

types of covering and lining epithelial tissues are classified according to two characteristics 

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Squamous Cells

thin, which allows for the rapid passage of substances through them

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Cuboidal Cells

cells that are as tall as they are wide and are shaped like cubes or hexagons; they may have microvilli at their apical surface and function in either secretion or absorption

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Columnar Cells

cells that are much taller than they are wide, like columns, and protect underlying tissues; their apical surfaces may have cilia or microvilli, and they often are specialized for secretion and absorption

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Transitional Cells

cells that change shape, from squamous to cuboidal and back, as organs such as the urinary bladder stretch (distend) to a larger size and then collapse to a smaller size

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Endocrine (ductless) Glands

glands secrete hormones

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Exocrine (Ducts) Glands

glands where secretions are excreted out the ducts

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Goblet Cells

single celled mucus glands

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3 Different Functional Classifications of Exocrine Glands

Merocrine Secretion- product released by exocytosis

Apocrine Secretion- top part of cell pinches off, rest of cell repairs itself and repeats the process

Holocrine Secretion- accumulate a secretory product in their cytosol; as the secretory cell matures it ruptures and becomes the secretory product

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Connective Tissues Defined By

specialized cells within the matrix of extracellular protein fibers and filler fluid- ground substance

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Extracellular Matrix

consists of protein fibers and ground substance, the material between the cells and the fibers

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Fibroblasts

immature cells in loose and dense connective tissue

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Chondroblasts

immature cells in cartilage

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Osteoblasts

specialized fibroblasts that are responsible for brain formation

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Ground Substance

contains the fibers and many sugars (glycosaminoglycans-associated with proteins called proteoglycans)

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Hyaluronic Acid

a viscious, slippery substance that binds cells together, lubricates joints, and helps maintain the shape of the eyeballs

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Adipocytes

fat cells; connective tissue cells that store triglycerides (fats)

they are found deep to the skin and around organs such as the heart and kidneys

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Fibroblasts Secrete 3 Fiber Types

Collagen

Reticular Fibers

Elastin

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Collagen Fibers

very strong and resist pulling forces (tensions), but they are not stiff, which allows tissue flexibility

properties vary in different tissues

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Reticular Fibers

consisting of collagen, arranged in fine bundles with a coating of glycoprotein; provide support in the walls of blood vessels and form a network around the cells in some tissues, such as areolar connective tissue, adipose tissue, nerve fibers, and smooth muscle tissue

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Elastin Fibers

smaller in diameter than collagen fibers; branch and join together to form a fibrous network within a connective tissue

consists of molecules of protein surrounded by a glycoprotein named fibrillin (which adds strength and stability)

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Mesenchymal Cells

undifferentiated precursor cells to fibroblasts, macrophage, other connective tissue cells

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Macrophage

fixed or free

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Microphages

smaller phagocytic cells

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Lymphocytes

plasma cells produce antibodies

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Mast Cells

contain histamine and heparin- cause inflammation

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Loose Connective Tissues

shock absorber, padding, also 3-D structure for soft organs

loosely arranged between cells

types:

areolar connective tissue

adipose tissue

reticular connective tissue

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Dense Connective Tissues 2 Types

Regular- fibers arranged in parallel, have strength in primarily one direction; ex. tendons (muscle-bone); ligaments (bone-bone)

Irregular- interwoven net of give strength in all directions

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Connective Tissue Proper

those types of cells which live and function in extracellular matrix

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Fluid Connective Tissue

distinct cell populations in fluid matrix (blood, lymph); also have suspended proteins- soluble, not fibrous red blood cells

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Leukocytes

white blood cells of the immune system involved in defending the body against both infectious disease and foreign materials

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Lymphatic System

part of immune system

also fluid connective tissue

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Supporting Connective Tissue

bone and cartilage

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Cartilage

Cartilage is a flexible connective tissue found in many areas in the body

cell (chondrocytes) in thick gel of proteoglycans

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3 Types of Cartilage

elastic cartilage- (nose, ears, epiglottic), lots of elastin fibers

hyaline cartilage

fibrocartilage- little ground substance, lots collagen

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Integumentary

2 layers: epidermis, dermis

composed of the skin, hair, oil and sweat glands, nails, and sensory receptors

helps maintain a constant body temperature, protects the body, and provides sensory information about the surrounding environment

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Cutaneous Membrane

the skin

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Dermis

loose and dense connective tissue containing collagen and elastic fibers; vascular

great tensile strength (resists pulling and stretching forces)

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Functions of The Integumentary

protection

excretion- sweat, water, salt, some urea

temperature control- through sweat & controlling capillaries

synthesis of vitamin D

nutrient storage

has sensory receptors

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Epidermis

avascular (so it cut, no bleeding here)

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Hypodermis aka Subcutaneous Layer

not part of the skin; this layer consists of areolar and adipose tissues

serves as a storage depot for fat and contains large blood vessels that supply the skin

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Pacinian (Lamellated) Corpuscles

nerve endings in the subcutaneous layer that are sensitive to pressure

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Epidermis composed of

keratinized stratified squamous epithelium

contains 4 types of cells:

Keratinocytes

Melanocytes

Langerhan's cells

Merkel cells

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Keratinocytes

about 90% of epidermal cells

arranged in four or five layers and produce the protein keratin (a tough fibrous protein that helps protect the skin and underlying tissues from abrasions, heat, microbes, and chemicals); also produce lamellar granules

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Melanocytes

about 8% of epidermis

develop from the ectoderm of a developing embryo and produce the pigment melanin

their long, slender projections extend between the keratinoctes and transfer melanin granules to them

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Melanin

a yellow or brown-black pigment that contributes to skin color and absorbs damaging ultraviolet light

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Langerhans cells

dendritic cells of the epidermis; arise from red bone marrow and migrate to the epidermis where they constitute a small fraction of the epidermal cells

aka epidermal dendritic cells

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Merkel Cells

least numerous of the epidermal cells; located in the deepest layer of the epidermis where they contact the flattened process of a sensory neuron (nerve cell), a structure called a Merkel (tactile) disc

detect touch sensations

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4 Epidermis Layers

Stratum Germinativum (stratum basale)

Stratum Spinosum

Stratum Granulosum

Stratum Corneum

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Stratum Basale

deepest layer composed of a single row of cuboidal or columnar keratinocytes

some cells in this layer are stem cells that undergo cell division to continually produce new keratinocytes

nuclei of keratinocytes are large; cytoplasm contains many ribosomes, a small golgi complex, a few mitochondria, and some rough endoplasmic reticulum

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Stratum Spinosum

mainly consists of numerous keratinocytes arranged in 8-10 layers; cells in the more superficial layers become somewhat flattened

keratinocytes produce coarser bundles of keratin in intermediate filaments than those of the basal layer; at each spinelike projection, bundles of keratin intermediate filaments insert into desmosomes, which tightly join the cells to one another (provides strength and flexibility to skin)

shrink and pull apart when prepared for microscope

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Desmosomes

cell to cell adhesion

plaques of protoglycans and intermediate fibers

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Stratum Granulosum

consists of 3-5 layers of flattened keratinocytes that are undergoing apoptosis

the nuclei and other organelles of these cells begin to degenerate as they move farther from their source of nutrition (the dermal blood vessels)

keratin no longer being produced

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Apoptosis

an orderly, genetically programmed cell death in which the nucleus fragments before the cell dies

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Keratohyaline

assembles keratin intermediate filaments into keratin

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Stratum Lucidum

present only in the thick skin of areas such as the fingertips, palms, and soles

consists of 4-6 layers of flattened clear, dead keratinocytes that contain large amounts of keratin and thickened plasma membranes

additional level of toughness

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Eleidin

clear intracellular protein which is present in the stratum lucidum of the skin

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Stratum Corneum

consists of average 25-30 layers of flattened dead keratinocytes, but can range in thickness from a few cells in thin skin to 50 or more cell layers in thick skin

cells are extremely thin, flat, plasma membrane-enclosed packages of keratin that no longer contain a nucleus or any internal organelles

they are the final product of the differentiation process of the keratinocytes

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Reticular Region

attached to the subcutaneous layer, consists of bundles of thick collagen fibers, scattered fibroblasts, and various wandering cells (such a macrophages)

some adipose cells can be present in deepest layers

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Psoriasis

a common and chronic skin disorder in which keratinocytes divide and move more quickly than normal from the stratum basale to the stratum corneum

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Papillary Region

makes up about one fifth of the thickness of the total layer of dermis; it consists of thin collagen and fine elastic fibers; surface area is greatly increased by dermal papillae

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dermal papillae

small, nipple-shaped structures that project into the undersurface of the epidermis; all contain capillary loops (blood vessels); some also contain tactile receptors called Meissner Corpuscles

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Free Nerve Endings

dendrites that lack any apparent structural specialization

different ones initiate signals that give rise to sensations of warmth, coolness, pain, tickling, and itching

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Calcitriol

calcium binding protein

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Subcutaneous Layer

below the dermis; injections

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Carotene

a yellow-orange pigment that gives egg yolks and carrots their color

pre-cursor of vitamin A which is used to synthesize pigment needed for vision, is stores in the stratum corneum and fatty areas of the dermis and subcutaneous layer in response to excessive dietary intake

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Shaft of the Hair

superficial portion which projects above the surface of the skin

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Root

portion of the hair deep to the shaft that penetrates into the dermis, and sometimes into the subcutaneous layer

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Tissue	group of similar cells that usually have a common embryonic origin that function together to carry out specialized activities
4 Basic Tissue Types	Connective, Muscle, Epithelial, Nervous
Connective Tissues	Protect and support the body and its organs; various types bind organs together, store energy reserves as fat, and help provide the body with immunity to disease-causing organisms not just muscles and tendons but basically all tissues that provide support (skeleton) and fill space (fat)
Muscle Tissue	Composed of cells specialized for contraction and generation of force, in the process it generates heat support, movement, heat generation

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Epithelial Tissue	Cover body surfaces and line hollow organs (like intestines & heart), body cavities, and ducts; also forms glands This tissue allows the body to interact in both the internal and external environment cells are polar; top is functional surface; bottom is where more organelles cluster; inner surface connected to basement membrane
Nervous Tissue	Detects changes in a variety of conditions inside and outside the body and responds by generating electrical signals called nerve action potentials (nerve impulses) that activate muscular contractions and glandular secretions controls other organs, receives and transmits information
Epithelial and Most Types of Connective Tissue	More general in nature & have a wide distribution in the body except for cartilage, bone, and blood
Cell Junctions	contact points between the plasma membranes of tissue cells 5 Most Important Types: Tight __ Adherens __ Desmosomes Hemidesmosomes Gap __

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Tight Junctions	consist of weblike strands of transmembrane proteins that fuse together the outer surfaces of adjacent plasma membranes to seal off passageways between adjacent cells Cells of epithelial tissues that line the stomach, intestines, and urinary bladder have many of these Inhibit the passage of substances between cells and prevent the contents of these organs from leaking into the blood of surrounding tissues
Adherens Junctions	Contain plaque, a dense layer of proteins on the inside of the plasma membrane that attaches both to membrane proteins and to microfilaments of the cytoskeleton Helps epithelial surfaces resist separation during various contractile activities, as when food moves through the intestines
Cadherins	(of the adherens junctions) Transmembrane glycoproteins that join the cells; each one inserts into the plaque from the opposite side of the plasma membrane, partially crosses the intercellular space (the space between the cells), and connects to the __ of another cell
Adhesion Belts	In epithelial cells; adherens junctions often form these extensive zones they encircle the cell similar to the way a belt encircles your waist

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Desmosomes	contain plaque and have transmembrane glycoproteins (cadherins) that extend into the intercellular space between adjacent cell membranes and attach cells to one another does not attach to microfilaments; it attaches to elements of the cytoskeleton known as intermediate filaments, which consist of protein keratin common among the cells that make up the epidermis and among cardiac cells of the heart
Hemidesmosomes	resemble desmosomes, but they do not link adjacent cells the transmembrane glycoproteins in these are integrins they anchor cells not to each other but to the basement membrane
Integrins	on the inside of the plasma membrane, they attach to intermediate filaments made of the protein keratin on the outside of the plasma membrane, they attach to the protein laminin, which is present in the basement membrane
Gap Junctions	here, connexins (membrane proteins) form tiny fluid filled tunnels that connect neighboring cells the plasma membranes are separated by a very narrow intercellular gap (space)

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Epithelium	consists of cells arranged in continuous sheets, in either single or multiple layers cells are tightly packed; there is little intercellular space between adjacent plasma membranes
Functions of Epithelial Tissues	1.) selective barriers that limit or aid the transfer of substances into and out of the body 2.) secretory surfaces that release products produced by the cells onto their free surfaces 3.) protective surfaces that resist the abrasive influences of the environment
Apical (free) Surface	Of the epithelial cell faces the body surface, a body cavity, the lumen (interior space) of an internal organ, or a tubular duct that receives cell secretions may contain cilia or microvilli most superficial of layers
Lateral Surfaces	Of an epithelial cell, they face the adjacent cells on either side, may contain tight junctions, adherens junctions, desmosomes, and/or gap junctions

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Basal Surface	Of an epithelial cell, opposite the apical surface; of the deepest layer of epithelial cells adhere to extracellular materials such as the basement membrane deepest of layers
Basement Membrane	a thin extracellular layer that commonly consists of two layers, the basal lamina and reticular lamina they attach to and support overlying epithelial tissue they form a surface along which epithelial cells migrate during growth or wound healing, restrict passage of larger molecules between epithelial and connective tissue, and participate in filtration of blood in the kidneys
Basal Lamina	closer to and secreted by the epithelial cells; it contains proteins such as laminin and collagen, as well as glycoproteins and proteoglycans
Reticular Lamina	closer to the underlying connective tissue and contains proteins such as collagen produced by connective tissue cells called fibroblasts

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Avascular	relying on the blood vessels of the adjacent connective tissue to bring nutrients and remove wastes (epithelial tissues); exchange of substances between epithelial and connective tissues occurs by diffusion
Simple Epithelium	a single layer of cells that functions in diffusion, osmosis, filtration, secretion, or absorption
Secretion	the production and release of substances such as mucus, sweat, or enzymes
Absorption	The intake of fluids or other substances such as digested food from the intestinal tract

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Pseudostratified Epithelium	appears to have multiple layers of cells because the cell nuclei lie at different levels and not all cells reach the apical surface, but it is actually a single epithelium because all its cells rest of the basement membrane cells that do extend to the apical surface may contain cilia; others (goblet cells) secrete mucus
Stratified Epithelium	consists of two or more layers of cells that protect underlying tissues in locations where there is considerable wear and tear
The arrangement of cells in layers & The shapes of the cells	types of covering and lining epithelial tissues are classified according to two characteristics
Squamous Cells	thin, which allows for the rapid passage of substances through them

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Cuboidal Cells	cells that are as tall as they are wide and are shaped like cubes or hexagons; they may have microvilli at their apical surface and function in either secretion or absorption
Columnar Cells	cells that are much taller than they are wide, like columns, and protect underlying tissues; their apical surfaces may have cilia or microvilli, and they often are specialized for secretion and absorption
Transitional Cells	cells that change shape, from squamous to cuboidal and back, as organs such as the urinary bladder stretch (distend) to a larger size and then collapse to a smaller size
Endocrine (ductless) Glands	glands secrete hormones

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Exocrine (Ducts) Glands	glands where secretions are excreted out the ducts
Goblet Cells	single celled mucus glands
3 Different Functional Classifications of Exocrine Glands	Merocrine Secretion- product released by exocytosis Apocrine Secretion- top part of cell pinches off, rest of cell repairs itself and repeats the process Holocrine Secretion- accumulate a secretory product in their cytosol; as the secretory cell matures it ruptures and becomes the secretory product
Connective Tissues Defined By	specialized cells within the matrix of extracellular protein fibers and filler fluid- ground substance

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Extracellular Matrix	consists of protein fibers and ground substance, the material between the cells and the fibers
Fibroblasts	immature cells in loose and dense connective tissue
Chondroblasts	immature cells in cartilage
Osteoblasts	specialized fibroblasts that are responsible for brain formation

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Ground Substance	contains the fibers and many sugars (glycosaminoglycans-associated with proteins called proteoglycans)
Hyaluronic Acid	a viscious, slippery substance that binds cells together, lubricates joints, and helps maintain the shape of the eyeballs
Adipocytes	fat cells; connective tissue cells that store triglycerides (fats) they are found deep to the skin and around organs such as the heart and kidneys
Fibroblasts Secrete 3 Fiber Types	Collagen Reticular Fibers Elastin

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Collagen Fibers	very strong and resist pulling forces (tensions), but they are not stiff, which allows tissue flexibility properties vary in different tissues
Reticular Fibers	consisting of collagen, arranged in fine bundles with a coating of glycoprotein; provide support in the walls of blood vessels and form a network around the cells in some tissues, such as areolar connective tissue, adipose tissue, nerve fibers, and smooth muscle tissue
Elastin Fibers	smaller in diameter than collagen fibers; branch and join together to form a fibrous network within a connective tissue consists of molecules of protein surrounded by a glycoprotein named fibrillin (which adds strength and stability)
Mesenchymal Cells	undifferentiated precursor cells to fibroblasts, macrophage, other connective tissue cells

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Macrophage	fixed or free
Microphages	smaller phagocytic cells
Lymphocytes	plasma cells produce antibodies
Mast Cells	contain histamine and heparin- cause inflammation

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Loose Connective Tissues	shock absorber, padding, also 3-D structure for soft organs loosely arranged between cells types: areolar connective tissue adipose tissue reticular connective tissue
Dense Connective Tissues 2 Types	Regular- fibers arranged in parallel, have strength in primarily one direction; ex. tendons (muscle-bone); ligaments (bone-bone) Irregular- interwoven net of give strength in all directions
Connective Tissue Proper	those types of cells which live and function in extracellular matrix
Fluid Connective Tissue	distinct cell populations in fluid matrix (blood, lymph); also have suspended proteins- soluble, not fibrous red blood cells

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Leukocytes	white blood cells of the immune system involved in defending the body against both infectious disease and foreign materials
Lymphatic System	part of immune system also fluid connective tissue
Supporting Connective Tissue	bone and cartilage
Cartilage	Cartilage is a flexible connective tissue found in many areas in the body cell (chondrocytes) in thick gel of proteoglycans

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3 Types of Cartilage	elastic cartilage- (nose, ears, epiglottic), lots of elastin fibers hyaline cartilage fibrocartilage- little ground substance, lots collagen
Integumentary	2 layers: epidermis, dermis composed of the skin, hair, oil and sweat glands, nails, and sensory receptors helps maintain a constant body temperature, protects the body, and provides sensory information about the surrounding environment
Cutaneous Membrane	the skin
Dermis	loose and dense connective tissue containing collagen and elastic fibers; vascular great tensile strength (resists pulling and stretching forces)

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Functions of The Integumentary	protection excretion- sweat, water, salt, some urea temperature control- through sweat & controlling capillaries synthesis of vitamin D nutrient storage has sensory receptors
Epidermis	avascular (so it cut, no bleeding here)
Hypodermis aka Subcutaneous Layer	not part of the skin; this layer consists of areolar and adipose tissues serves as a storage depot for fat and contains large blood vessels that supply the skin
Pacinian (Lamellated) Corpuscles	nerve endings in the subcutaneous layer that are sensitive to pressure

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Epidermis composed of	keratinized stratified squamous epithelium contains 4 types of cells: Keratinocytes Melanocytes Langerhan's cells Merkel cells
Keratinocytes	about 90% of epidermal cells arranged in four or five layers and produce the protein keratin (a tough fibrous protein that helps protect the skin and underlying tissues from abrasions, heat, microbes, and chemicals); also produce lamellar granules
Melanocytes	about 8% of epidermis develop from the ectoderm of a developing embryo and produce the pigment melanin their long, slender projections extend between the keratinoctes and transfer melanin granules to them
Melanin	a yellow or brown-black pigment that contributes to skin color and absorbs damaging ultraviolet light

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Langerhans cells	dendritic cells of the epidermis; arise from red bone marrow and migrate to the epidermis where they constitute a small fraction of the epidermal cells aka epidermal dendritic cells
Merkel Cells	least numerous of the epidermal cells; located in the deepest layer of the epidermis where they contact the flattened process of a sensory neuron (nerve cell), a structure called a Merkel (tactile) disc detect touch sensations
4 Epidermis Layers	Stratum Germinativum (stratum basale) Stratum Spinosum Stratum Granulosum Stratum Corneum
Stratum Basale	deepest layer composed of a single row of cuboidal or columnar keratinocytes some cells in this layer are stem cells that undergo cell division to continually produce new keratinocytes nuclei of keratinocytes are large; cytoplasm contains many ribosomes, a small golgi complex, a few mitochondria, and some rough endoplasmic reticulum

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Stratum Spinosum	mainly consists of numerous keratinocytes arranged in 8-10 layers; cells in the more superficial layers become somewhat flattened keratinocytes produce coarser bundles of keratin in intermediate filaments than those of the basal layer; at each spinelike projection, bundles of keratin intermediate filaments insert into desmosomes, which tightly join the cells to one another (provides strength and flexibility to skin) shrink and pull apart when prepared for microscope
Desmosomes	cell to cell adhesion plaques of protoglycans and intermediate fibers
Stratum Granulosum	consists of 3-5 layers of flattened keratinocytes that are undergoing apoptosis the nuclei and other organelles of these cells begin to degenerate as they move farther from their source of nutrition (the dermal blood vessels) keratin no longer being produced
Apoptosis	an orderly, genetically programmed cell death in which the nucleus fragments before the cell dies

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Keratohyaline	assembles keratin intermediate filaments into keratin
Stratum Lucidum	present only in the thick skin of areas such as the fingertips, palms, and soles consists of 4-6 layers of flattened clear, dead keratinocytes that contain large amounts of keratin and thickened plasma membranes additional level of toughness
Eleidin	clear intracellular protein which is present in the stratum lucidum of the skin
Stratum Corneum	consists of average 25-30 layers of flattened dead keratinocytes, but can range in thickness from a few cells in thin skin to 50 or more cell layers in thick skin cells are extremely thin, flat, plasma membrane-enclosed packages of keratin that no longer contain a nucleus or any internal organelles they are the final product of the differentiation process of the keratinocytes

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Reticular Region	attached to the subcutaneous layer, consists of bundles of thick collagen fibers, scattered fibroblasts, and various wandering cells (such a macrophages) some adipose cells can be present in deepest layers
Psoriasis	a common and chronic skin disorder in which keratinocytes divide and move more quickly than normal from the stratum basale to the stratum corneum
Papillary Region	makes up about one fifth of the thickness of the total layer of dermis; it consists of thin collagen and fine elastic fibers; surface area is greatly increased by dermal papillae
dermal papillae	small, nipple-shaped structures that project into the undersurface of the epidermis; all contain capillary loops (blood vessels); some also contain tactile receptors called Meissner Corpuscles

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Free Nerve Endings	dendrites that lack any apparent structural specialization different ones initiate signals that give rise to sensations of warmth, coolness, pain, tickling, and itching
Calcitriol	calcium binding protein
Subcutaneous Layer	below the dermis; injections
Carotene	a yellow-orange pigment that gives egg yolks and carrots their color pre-cursor of vitamin A which is used to synthesize pigment needed for vision, is stores in the stratum corneum and fatty areas of the dermis and subcutaneous layer in response to excessive dietary intake

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Shaft of the Hair	superficial portion which projects above the surface of the skin
Root	portion of the hair deep to the shaft that penetrates into the dermis, and sometimes into the subcutaneous layer

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