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| Class: | EART 80A - Earth Catastrophes |
| Subject: | Earth Sciences |
| University: | University of California-Santa Cruz |
| Term: | Spring 2011 |
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uniformitarianism
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States that processes observed today, operating over great spans of time give rise to large scale events. Developed by Charles Lyell in the mid 1800s. example) a mountain grows a little bit every day, and in a million years it will be huge = daily progression lead to incredible result |
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catastrophism
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States that changes in Earth often involve sudden events caused by physical forces operating in ways not routinely observed today, biblical-based. Developed by Georges Cuvier during late 1700s/early 1800s. example) a massive mountain emerges out of nowhere |
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rocks
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composite solids made of crystal structures with regular ordered atomic lattices of various atoms - earliest rocks 3.9 gyr no evidence of life - 3.8 gyr rocks with carbon 12, graphite with light carbon = photosynthesis? |
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spectroscopy
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light from glowing object SPECTROMETER = direct measurement brighter lines = emission darker lines = absorption |
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Dopler Effect
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if object is moving relative to observer measurement depends if object is moving away/towards you: ex) towards you = shorter, Blue Shift away from you = longer, Red Shift |
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Scientific Method
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1) formulate question 2) make observations 3) hypothesis to explain observations 4) test hypothesis with further observations 5) if necessary, replace/amend hypothesis 6) repeat, is the question answered? |
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Sun
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using a large prism, we get spectrum of Sun, reveals its composition: - we can take light from the stars to see what they are made of |
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Earth
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layered planet: atmosphere N, O, Ne, Carbon Dioxide, Oceans (h20) NaCl (sodium chloride) crust and mantle = 69% total mass core = 31% total mass -Fe 89% (when Earth melted, iron went to core) 4.6 billion years old |
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Universe
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14 billion years old looking at stars out there, we gather what makes up the light: -Hydrogen 27,200 -Helium 2,180 C, O, Ne, N, Mg, Si... - 99.85% Sun - 0.135% Planets - .015% comets, satellites, asteroids, dust and gas |
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Edwin Hubble (and the Big Bang)
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1929 -further away you are, faster they're moving away from us -Red Shift of galaxies increases proportional to distance -expansion of universe -go backwards from expanding means it was one thing = Big Bang |
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Hubble Constant
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used to determine age of universe |
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Steven Weinberg
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"In the beginning there was an explosion. The explosion occurred everywhere, with every particle rushing apart from every particle." - First Three Minutes |
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Big Bang Process
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1) up to 0.1 seconds=1,000,000,000,000 degrees Kelvin matter is in the form of subatomic particles 2) at 0.1 seconds matter is electrons, positrons, neutrinos, photons, heavy density 3) at 1 second temp decreases to 100,000,000,000 K 4) at 180 seconds temp cools down to 10,000,000,000 K, protons and neutrons form H, He, nuclei 73% mass H, 27% He |
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nucleosynthesis
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building of nucleus - determine chemical composition of the Earth |
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Fusion
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- 10 to the 10th-10 to the ninth degrees K - protons collide, deuterium nucleus, tritium/3He nuclei = He nucleus After 3 mins... -temp and pressure below threshold for fusion: H and He only (Li, B little) When H Fusion runs out... -burns up H, makes He -fusion ceases and gravity causes core to collapse, outer layers of star expand outward as Red Giant phase When H Fusion runs out in really big Star... -matter packs together in collapsing, heating core -He core of star may exceed 10 to the 8th K -3 He atoms collide to make C -higher temp C=>O, then Si which produces Fe |
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Fusion Problem
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can't get Fe to burn, the star will run out of fusion heat -gravity collapses iron core smaller, distabilizes matter, breaks apart components |
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supernova
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star explodes (collapsing of inner Fe core) - shock wave blasts out shallow layers of star, spreading elements into interstellar space, expands (really fast) brighter than the Sun - synthesizes elements heavier than Fe, up to Uranium, Plutonium, etc. |
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neutrinos
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energy released when electrons and protons collide to make neutrons |
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Supernova Explosion Aftermath
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- star core collapses, packing neutrinos together - Neutron star (pulsars) into initial 6-30 solar masses...fast spin - Black hole; initial star greater than 30 solar masses, even photons don't explode |
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Star Process
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-very high mass=black hole star formation ==> main sequence ==> Red Giant -high mass=neutron star -low mass=white dwarf=>Black Dwarf *black hole = 30+ solar masses *Neutron Star = 6+ solar masses - oldest stars of H and He, low in metals |
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Historical Supernovae
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1054 - Crab Nebulae (5,000 light years away) 1604 - Rennaissance Star 1987 - Large Magellanic cloud, light arrived, detected neutrino flux |
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Background Radiation
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10,000-300,000 years => universe expands, cools, particle density decreases until it's TRANSPARENT => photons propogate without absorption: origin of Background Radiation (temp ~ 3K) *photons still flying around due to transparency |
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Nucleosynthesis
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- experimental physics - theory: predicts relative abundances observed supernovae debris |
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Evidence for Big Bang
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- red shift of galaxies - background radiation - theory predicts abundance of H and He - early stars H, He rich, metal poor -nucleosynthesis |
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Solar System Formation
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1) condensation (Laplace, Descartes) 2) encounter (de Buffon) 3) Nebular Turbulence (current thought) |
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Solar System Observations
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a) Planets in plane, orbit and (most) spin with Sun's axis b) Planet distribution regular: Bodes Law c) Planet bulk composition varies with distance from the Sun d) Sun has 99.9% mass, planets < 98% Angular Momentum...hard to account for the spinning/rotating of planets |
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Accretion
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- collapse of gas and dust cloud "protosolar supernova" 99% H and He - flattens and disk begins to spin - Sun ignites (fusion) and blows away remaining dust and gas - planets form |
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Condensation
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as Nebular Gas cools, certain elements from solid compounds in a particular sequence: - condensing materials accrete - planetismals form - chaotic collisions occur - planets grow quickly - solar radiation drives gas outward - terrestrial planets refractory rich |
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Planet Order
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Mercury Venus Earth Mars Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune |
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Jupiter
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asteroid belt in between Mars and Jupiter where planet was going to form...but didn't - keeps a planet from forming between 2-5 AU - gives powerful perturbation to planets trying to accrete - 3 times as massive as all other planets put together |
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The Moon
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- mars-sized embryo late in Earth's accretion Results: - few volatiles, boiled away from hot disk - very little iron, all went to Earth's core 2 Things: - impactor's iron core merges with targets iron core - what's left is an accretion disk (may take another 1,000 years for Moon to form out of this mess) - has scars to trace impacts from craters) |
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Goldilocks World of Earth
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- Earth just big enough to hold N, O, H2O, and CO2, but small enough for H and He to escape - Earth's distance from the Sun yields "reasonable" influx of radiation, don't get widely extreme atmospheric cycles and storms - incoming radiation from Sun heats surface close to temp where water is liquid, all 3 phases of water exist, water great solvent and has odd property that as it freezes it becomes less dense (ice floats) - tilted rotational axis from lunar impact makes seasons and oscillatory heating and cooling of poles |
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Before/After Lunar Formation
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BEFORE -magma ocean, molten Fe core, comets with H2O -no atmosphere or oceans -continued meteorite and comet rain AFTER -correcting mantle, crust, molten solid -solid rocky surface -atmosphere and ocean -initially CO2 atmosphere then O2 -life |
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Hadean Period
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first billion years hell (Hades) ==> continues for 500 my - meteorite bombardment = magma ocean (melting dominant role in separating Earth's chemicals) - Earth hotter by hundreds of degrees - mantle convection more vigorous - granite rocks (silica-rich) began forming - H2O, CO2, other gases released by intense volcanism built up atmosphere and hydrosphere - big impacts replaced atmosphere with rock vapor for a few centuries (not pleasant) |
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Earth Evolves
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- Earth cools, releasing heat of accretion - internal melting causes light materials to rise, dense materials sink - gas and water released from melting rock build up atoms and oceans over time - life appears and modifies surface and environment/atmosphere - its magnetic field shields it from harmful radiation |
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Earth's Internal Motions
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driven by cooling of planet over time, presence of gravity |
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Earth's atmospheric/ocean motions
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driven by heating from Sun and gravity, many catastrophes result from these dynamic systems |
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Precambrian
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proterozoic and archaen = bacteria and single cells 500 Million Years Ago plants and animals - after Hadean we have records = rocks |
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Early Life
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- 3.5 gyr microfossils and stromatolites in Australia/Africa - cyanobacteria (blue/green algae) = photosynthesis - CaCo3 and chert (SiO2) - fossil microbial mats |
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What's Life?
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- boundaries: organized structure, smallest unit is a cell - metabolism: harvest energy from environment to build and maintain body and move - reproduce: make new copies of themselves - hereditary: offspring have traits passed down from parents - respond: react to external stimuli - homeostasis: maintain internal state of balance |
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prokaryote
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very small with no nucleus - bacteria and cyanobacteria - loop of DNA in cytoplasm - no membrane-bounded organelles - binary fission, dominantly asexual |
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Order of Life
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Precambrian: Archean => Proterozoic Paleozoic: Cambrian followed by other stuff Mesozoic: Triassic, Jurassic, Cretaceous Cenozoic: stuff |
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diffusion
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transport material into/out of cell: limits size |
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Tree of Life #1
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Eubacteria! - photosynthesis |
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Tree of Life #2
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Eukarya! (Eukaryote) - stuff with nucleus, bigger than prokaryote - DNA in chromosomes in membrane-bounded nucleus - membrane-bounded organelles - mitosis or meiosis, dominantly sexual - 2.1-1.7 bya fossils for sure (possible 2.7 bya) =>1.7-1.2 bya common fossils with low diversity =>1.2-0.7 bya diverse, sexual reproduction |
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Tree of Life #3
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Archaea! - extreme environment where bacteria would die, most likely these guys established first |
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chemistry of life
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- most molecules in cell have C bonded to itself or H - cells full of liquid water, main component of cytoplasm, universal solvent - basic elements other than C are: N, H, O, P, S and are present in many molecules, all fairly common on early Earth |
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energy of life
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- energy comes from high energy electrons =>passed from molecule to molecule in cell =>energy released used to charge-up ADP to ATP by adding phosphate ion |
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autotroph
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capture energy from light or chemical reactions (chemo-autotroph reactions = inorganic reactions) (photo-autotroph = absorb light energy using molecules with organic metal complexes like chlorophyll. Energy charges up ATP - makes sugar - photosynthesis: 1) almost limitless source of food 2) O2 toxic to early Archaea/Eubacteria for anoxic environment 3) photosynthetic organisms developed antioxidents for protection 4) increase in O2 level permitted new energy method |
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heterotrophs
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energy by consuming organic compunds - decreases glucose to ethanol - in Eubacteria, Anaerobic (common in early Earth) |
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photo-autotrophs
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aerobic respiration
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requires oxygen to generate energy (ATP) |
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endosymbiosis hypothesis
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- mitochondria and chloroplasts once free living inside cell of another organism - organisms separated from cytoplasm by complex membranes (retain own DNA, reproduce by fission) - genetic structure of cells more like bacteria than host cell |
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Archaean Era
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part of precambrian times, to early protozoic is 3-2 bya - little O2 - find pyrite (iron sulfide) and uranite (uranium oxide) in river, photosynthesis going on therefore requires O2, where is it? - banded iron formations - layers of chert and iron oxide - low O2: iron soluble, chert deposits - high O2: forms rust deposits |
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Proterozoic Era
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second half of precambrian era, 2.5-0.6 bya - red bed deposits, requires O2 in atoms to rust iron, would have began ozone layer to protect from radiation - Eukaryotes form by endosymbiosis |
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Biblical context
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- mid 1600s archbishop Ussher: Earth's bday Oct 2 4004 BC - 1654 revised by John Lightfoot: Oct 26 4004 BC |
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sedimentary rock
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accumulate by eroding older rock or chemical precipitation or depositing shells |
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igneous rock
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solidify from melted rock (magma) granites, lava |
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metamorphic rock
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apply high temp and/or pressure to existing rock of any other type |
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Nicolaus Steno
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mid/late 1600s says lava flows and sediments from flowing material that spreads out |
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Principal of Original Horizontality
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layering of sediments and lavas formed horizontally |
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Principal of Lateral Continuity
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layer may change in thinkness, but will be continued, thus a bed that looks the same and is the same age can be correlated |
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Principal of Superposition
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younger rocks on top of older rocks (except when magma is injected) |
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unconformities
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represent gaps in the rock record during which erosion took place, rocks below unconformity could have been uplifted, tilted, folded, renewed deposition VAST intervals may be missing * have to look at many locations to piece together complete sequence |
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James Hutton
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Theory of the Earth father of uniformitarianism, "no vestige of beginning, no prospect of the end" helped with unconformities too |
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strata
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rock layers also called beds |
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stratigraphy
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study of vertical/horizontal rock layers (may include looking at fossils for ages = Bio-Stratiagraphic Correlation) |
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Principal of Faunal Succession
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William Smith (late 1700s/early 1800s) used fossil and sediment types to make first geological map |
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Evidence of Ice Age(s)
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1) glaciers at sea level near equator 2) ocean rocks indicate no photosynthesis 3) thick layer of calcium carbonate CaCO3 above glacial deposits |
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Endings to Ice Age(s)
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- ice spreads from poles, reflects sunlight, planet cools - volcanoes keep erupting, no photosynthesis or rock weathering to suck CO2 - greenhouse warming, rapid rock weathering leads to CaCo3 deposits Life Survives! = underneath ice, some niches still open for organisms because of volcanoes |
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After Ice Age(s)
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- multicellular animals, differentiation of cells, on/off switches, develop sequences, bigger, specialized structures, longer lives - diverse forms around 700 mya including algae, fungi, soft bodied animals |
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index fossils
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life forms useful for biostratigraphic correlation have: - short existence from first occurrence to extinction - spatially wide occurrence - abundance - likelihood of preservation *often: 1) oceanic to easily migrate 2) shells/bones 3) low on food chain (lots of them) |
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Cambrian Era
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- invertebrate fossils significant, part of Paleozoic |
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Paleozoic Era
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(ancient) with first reptiles, terrestrial vertebrates of amphibia/fish started 540 mya |
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Mesozoic Era
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(middle) reptiles (dinos) advanced marine invertebrate -Cretaceous (newer) -Jurassic -Triassic (older) started 240 mya |
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Cenozoic Era
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(recent) with mammals, marine animals started 65 mya |
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Absolue Time
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geologists can measure time directly by annual cycles and deposition rates - sedimentation rates - varves, annual (seasonal) fluctuations in deposits/layers - tree rings, annual (seasonal) fluctuations |
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Lord Kelvin
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estimated age of Earth in 1862 - assume Earth once molten, cools by heat conduction - observed increase in temp with mines - calculate how long its taken to cool by heat conduction = 20-40 mya WRONG faulty assumptions - Earth has major heat source, radioactivity not discovered yet - cools heat by convection, also no discovered yet |
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Radioactivity
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- 1890s discovered - 1902 theory to explain it (Rutherford) - early 20th century first radioactive dating - decays generate heat! - also tells age *understand both amount of parent and daughter, once can tell age 1) count decays 2) count atoms directly "mass spectrometer" hard to compare rocks for age, fossils to connect ages of sediments |
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Jean-Baptise Lamarack
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late 1700s/early 1800s - first widely discussed evolution theory - spontaneous generation of organisms through history - organic flux: use/disuse of parts begins transformation to move up chain - inheritance of acquired characteristics - no extinction => would create gaps in chain - top of the chain is the oldest ex) giraffe's neck |
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Georges Cuvier
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late 1700s/early 1800s - life is bushy, not linear - no organic flux: species are real, stable, no intermediates - extinction is real - spontaneous generation of organisms through history |
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Charles Darwin
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1800s - theory of evolution by natural selection - accepts both evolution and extinction, that life's bushy - strongly influenced by Lyell's principles of geology - applied uniformitarianism to biology *supported gradualism, no catastrophes/spontaneousness, slowly over time: -if fossil record failed to show intermediates, this because of "imperfections" - evolution driven by continuous competition |
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homology
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structural similarities among organisms, organisms were created following common plan or archetype Darwin's explanation: organisms have all descended from common ancestor with equivalent trait |
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vestigial features
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functionless structures in a species but homologous to functioning structure in other species |
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morphology
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similar and vestigial organs and bones |
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geographic distribution
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e.g. marsupials of Australia |
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fossil record
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predicted intermediates between major groups are known from fossil record |
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classification/nested hierarchy
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organisms from hierarchies of increasingly similarity |
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Natural Selection
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IF.... 1) population displays variability 2) variability is inheritable 3) leads to different reproductive success (something passed down) THEN populations traits will shift (evolve) toward favored characteristics |
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Types of Evolution
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Gradualism: - forms over long periods of time Catastrophism: - new species emerge rapidly, horizontal branches tree of life |
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Changing Climate = Extinction?
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- rudists and inoceramids going extinct for 5 million years prior to K-T boundary, inland seas retreating? - 65 million years ago abrupt transition in rock layers =>63.8% of all SPECIES disappear =>90% of all living organisms (difficult to quantify with little evidence) Marine: mollusks, plankton, bryozoans, brachiopods, corals Terrestrial: dinos, marsupials decimated Survivors: small mammals, fresh water vertebrates |
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Where to Study K-T?
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1) site of continuous deposition 2) high sedimentation rate for time distribution - Walter Alvarez examines timing of K-T boundary in Italy where good stuff is exposed |
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Gubbio Site, Italy
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- shallow sea, receiving lots of sediment => now uplifted - order (deeper) rocks = cretaceous ecology (bigger/diverse_ - younger (shallower) rocks = distinct, small undiversified population |
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Iridium (Ir) in Clay
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- assume sedimentation of space dust is constant rate => Ir steadily raining on Earth (most Ir in core) => clock for Ir concentration time span by K-T extinction layer => discovered spike in Ir in this level - if cosmic sediment falling steadily, then K-T boundary would span millions of years AND requires global shut down of clay deposition in oceans...neither possible Alternative Hyp: abrupt spike in cosmic sediment deposition at K-T => a meteorite! |
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End of an Era Observations
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- immediate disruption - rain of fire - dust and dark - noxious loading of atmosphere - acid rain |
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Impact Hypothesis
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- explosion was like 5 Hiroshima bombs - 10 km meteorite hits Earth - results in massive environment perturbation and extinction - looked in European countries and found Ir concentration at about same time in rock layer |
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Shocked Quartz
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- approx. 50 km from crater center - only cosmic impacts and nuclear blasts can turn quartz into shocked quartz |
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Spherule Beds
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- glass balls; textiles are airborne melt droplets from impacts, either glass or (more commonly) altered glass - megatsunami deposits in Brazos, TX => central TX |
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Smoking Gun
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Discovery of Chicxulub - outer ring of Cicxulub crater in eastern/southern Mexico (north Belize) - found by Mexican oil workers, near Yucatan peninsula |
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Summary of Evidence
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- Ir anomaly (1980s) - shocked quartz - tektites (glass spheres) - global soot layer (?) - mega tsunami deposits - candidate impact crater in Yucatan |
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How it Worked
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- direct hit = 5 Hiroshima - tsunamis - 100 trillion tons of ejecta kicked up = IMPACT WINTER - Earth's surface broiled, ejecta rains back to Earth surface = 450 degrees F - global forest fires - increase in atmosphere CO2 (from fires and carbonate) - acid rain (from sulfate) |
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Other Hypotheses
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- huge volcanic eruptions - one in India (Deccan traps) 65 mya => doesn't explain everything, but could have had global impact: global cooling, ash/dust, photosynthesis shutdown, disrupt food chain - tried to explain Ir layer and shocked quartz by volcanism, but quit when Chicxulub discovered |
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250 Mya worse
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Impact and Volcanism Both Took Place: - end of Paleozoic, most severe biotic crisis in life's history (90-96% gone) World went to hell hypothesis: - pangea assembled (more vulnerable) - Siberian Flood Basalts (3,000,000 km3) = volcanic rock - global sea level decreased - deep ocean anoxia/overturn (chert, FeS2, CO2) |
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Haven't detected Ir-rich layer at P-T boundary but...
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- Ir no REQUIRED at extinction boundary - primative bodies (chondrite meteoroids/asteroids) have greatly enriched Ir => BUT comets don't, nor fragments of different planets => P-T rocks 250 my old, poorly preserved |
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Big Picture of Death... :O
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Mass Death Happens Often: - geologic time scale sequence of catastrophic mass extinctions causing changes in assemblages of life through time Disturbing Regularity? - approx every 26 my mass extinctions - sea level plate motions don't quite fit - Oort Comet Cloud = periodically rain meteorites on Earth? - 32 my period for major craters - approx 75% of Earth's asteroids discovered |
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Explain Extinctions and Bad Stuff
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Nemesis (dark, evil sister star?) Galactic Plane Oscillation (75 mya/2) |
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