Taxonology:Domain. Three domians Eukarya: ex. humans Archaea Bacteria

Kingdom

adjustment or change to meet environmental conditions; functional solution to a environmental problem. Solve by changing  through behavior, morphology(how you look) or physiology(way you act) . Can give you an advantage or disadvantage.

Form of trait that is advantage in terms of survival and reproduction. Gives you a selective advantage.

Ex. Snails. Colored ones. The green and brown, dry and wet season.

Ex. Humans.:Skin pigmentation.Vitamin D. Eyes-light in& Bipedal locomotion's- survival of young, thumbs, seeing 360. These have given us advantage.:Precision grip-fine tool movement Power grip- clubbing and hitting Depth perceptionEx. Monkeys. Brain-Biggest cognitive brain. Whales do as well. Joined with our hand structure has lead to our domination of the planet.

Language/speech

Most complex. Transfers info rapidly.

Form of trait that is a disadvantage in terms of survival and reproduction.

Ex. Birth effect. Occurs more in developing countries.

Ex. Sixth finger.:No control, badly placed, not functional at all. An anomaly.

Wisdom teeth.

1/3 will be infected and we can bleed to death. They use to fit, not anymore, our skeleton changed.

Skull has adapted faster than the jaw

Form of trait is neither a disadvantage or advantage in terms of survival and reproduction.

Eye, Hair, skin color

Tail bone.

De/Attached ear lobe

Organic evolution
Evolution of chemical state to first cell
Takes a long time almost a billion years. Taking inorganic compounds to the first cell. Earth in past is diff. new earth has more oxygen which tears down the molecules. Rust is an example of oxygenation
Organismal Evolution
Evolution of unicellular to multicellular organisms

Competition play role in species formation (not creation)

The cows, strong cattle that eat the food and kill the weak.

Animals change in response to changes in the environment

Those with fur survived the cold

Offspring inherit these changes. 

Theory of uniforminitarianism (uniformity) (changes in the earth occurred slowly, gradually and at uniform rates) counting of layers of soil. Showing that the : [earth is old and is changing slowly]

Earth was old 1-2 million yrs

By looking at layers, they found it as a normal gradual change.

States: earth is changing and its old and that’s how it is. It evolves and changes

Layer of fossils in the Cliffs of Dover, Great Britain

Linked age of rocks to age of fossils.

Saw the linkage between those organism on the bottom and that they were similar to the ones on the top. Linked living things and the age of the planet. You can connect life with how old the rocks are. 

Species go extinct

Theory of Catastrophism

(survivors not new species, fossils represent species that were destroyed.)

Doesn’t hold up numerically. There are more species now than there was before.

Was richer thank Lamarck. He could afford to buy pamphlets to discredit Lamarck. 

Inheritance of acquired characteristics (traits)

Environmental pressures and internal needs bring about permanent changes in body form and function

Ex. Giraffe ( process of orthogenesist [straight line])

Sp A -> sp B-> sp C -> sp D necks stretching their necks and their youth having longer necks.

Not true. 

3 major findings

As environment changes so does species composition

Fossils are related to organisms today but are also structurally different

Collects fossils along the way. Related to similar organism yet with differences.

Galapagos islands: island animals were related to mainland species but locally different in form and function ex: finches.

geometric growth of populations"

All populations have the capacity to produce more individuals than the environment can support.

Poor had higher population rate. Had an idea of how revolutions began. Poor would out use their resources then stealing them from the rich. 

Comes from different status, blue collar. As he travels, he sees same thing as Darwin.

In 1889 Darwin published his book on " on the origin of species"

Didn’t published first one due to the Victorian era of Christianity. Sold out rapidly but controversial. 

Theory of mutation "mutare"

Spontaneous mutation was the source of variation

Inheritance of specific traits in organisms comes in particles. He called these units pangenes. (Mutated/changed chunks of info. Genes comes from this)

What is known as the gene today. 

Combination of Darwinian natural selection and basic genetics.

Mutation created them- natural selection picks which one works. Then passed on. Slow growth period. 

Theory of punctuated equilibrium

1 Long periods of stability (stasis) punctuated by bursts of evolutionary change and diversification

2 We get these when environment changes rapidly.  See this with climate change- global warming.

3 Saying rapid periods of change then nothing. But those slow periods have slow changes and specialization

4 Periods in between no evolution but specialization slow and normal

Synthesis of Neodarwinian ideas, population biology and punctuated equilibrium

Short bursts of evolution followed by long periods of slow gradual change

Modifications in descent can occur gradually, rapidly or a combination of both. 

• Morphological traits
• Physiological traits
• Behavioral traits

Unicellular ( most are prokaryotic) No nucleus and no membrane bound organelles (whole series of cells encapsulated in membranes)

Multi-cellular ( most are eukaryotic) Have a nucleus and membrane bound organelles. A certain focus which allows for specialization.

Eukaryotic cell types: Nucleus Chromosome Packed in

DNA and Histone protein

Ex. Humans 46 chromosomes (23 pairs) 

A coding system using 4 letters

The sequence of bases along DNA is genetic info. This sequence is what causes variation.

Varies among species

Nucleotide- ribose sugar, phosphate and nitrogen containing base

Rails of latter are made of these

Nitrogenous base: adenine , thymine, cytosine, guanine.  (a to t, C to G)

Hydrogen bongs connect them

Simple, so hard to mess up. 

3 or more different molecular forms of a gene

Brown hair vs blond hair, blue vs brown eyes

the abundance of each kind of allele in a population

• Ex. Eye color. A gross simplification.
• Genotype frequency = (#/total population) X 100= %
• For all eye colors to get the genotype frequency to find the percentage of those with that trai

Egg + sprem -> fertilization (fusion) -> zygote (mitosis) -> differentiation -> adult organism -> mitosis(which leads to somatic cells Diploid) or meiosis (leads to gametes haploid)

Starts with two chromosomes and ends in another diploid to diploid

Halving the chromosome. Diploid to haploid. Benefiting is independent assortment. Increased gentic variation. If environment changes, variations suitable to change.

Pairs of homologous chromosomes combine

Increase variation ( by shuffling the deck)

Crossing over

Each similar pair of chromosomes line up and can exchange genes

Independent assortment at meiosis.

all the genes in a population ( pool of genetic resources) 

all the genes in a species.

Doesn’t make anything new, scrambles what's already there.

Secondary source

Shufflin

• Not common
• Usually negative
• Can be lethal to animals
• Animals don’t take well to this.  (two headed cow)
• Plants can handle it better than humans.
• Colors of roses due to this chromosomal mutation.
• Taking a chromosome out adding another and mixing

• sexual reproduction between 2 genetically different individuals
• Decrease: the genetic load ( # of potential harmful negative genes)
• Increase the amount of variation in a population 

• sexual reproduction between 2 genetically similar individuals
• Increase the genetic load ( # of potential harmful negative genes)
• Decrease the amount of variation in a population
• Recessive homogenous-maladaptive

• Ex. Amish and cheetahs. Sea elephants. 

• Traits being favored are advantageous with respect to survival and reproduction because males or females prefer them
• Intrasexual (same sex) or intersexual (opposite sex)
• Ex. Brad pitt:)

• You survive because the other prefers the trait.
• Cost- more prone to predators. Ex. Peacocks. Beautiful feathers-mating but will get eaten.
• Fiddler crab:Claw-to battle other males.

• Non random mating selects for alleles from preferred traits that prevail over generations
  
• Females are often the main agents of selection 
  

• Male = sterile
  
• Female - infertile
  
• Can happen in nature but is very rare. Horse is big and fast, have no stamina. Donkey-strong and endurance. But lack size.
  

• Ex. Liger 

• the contribution an individual makes to the gene pool of the next generation, relative to the contribution of other individuals.
• How many offspring you have with the genes you pass on

• Acts on phenotypes not genotypes
• If organism is adapted to environment = positive contribution
• One is contributing more than other

• If organism is not adapted to environment= negative contribution
• One is contributing less

• + = positive contribution ( well adapted)
• -  = negative contribution (not well adapted)
• Many individuals will cluster around the mean.  (get graph online)
• Clustered around mean. Those near the middle are giving a positive contribution and those on the ends are giving a negative contribution. 

Intermediated forms of traits are favored and extreme forms are eliminated from populations

Reduces variation

Preserves the most common phenotype (phenotypic character)

Basic conditions

Environment remains stable over time

Organisms have obtained a high state of adaptiveness.

Over time the hump will narrow up.

Individuals that are well adapted cluster around the mean

Ex. Human birth weight. 

Allele frequencies in a range of phenotypic characteristics shift in a one direction or another

Individuals that deviate from the average are favored

Occur when mutations appear and prove adaptive (effective and useful)

Ex. Our earth-static and stable? No. fluctuates. Ex. 1000 cycle of colder weather.

Basic conditions

Environ and or bio conditions area changing over time

Species cant be completely adapted to the changing conditions.

Hump graph. Negative on one half. Positive on the other (graph)

Will shift left or right. Mean changes

Takes a long time to do. A slow process. Time scale is long.

Individual at one end of the range for some phenotypic character become more common than intermediate forms

Ex. European Brown bear

Bears get smaller with warmer weather.

Ex. Peppered moth ( bison betularia)

Phenotypic characters at both ends of the range of variation are favored Intermediate forms are selected against

Basic conditions :Positive selection tends to effect the extremes not the means On the edges and negatives are in the middle.

The number of organism is often reduced (graph) Time scale is short. Creates a two humped bimodal hump

Reduction of organisms.

Ex. Black bellied see cracker finches (pyrenestes ostrinus)

• Selected for thick woody stems= hemp fiber
• Selected for large oily seeds= hemp oil
• Selected for large resinous leaves and flower buds = psychoactive drug ( THC- tetrahydrocannabinol)
• Natural pesticides to not get consumed by animals

• Brussel sprouts
  

A severe reduction in population size brought about by intense selection pressure or natural disaster :Contagious disease, habitat loss, hunting, volcanoes, etc.

Variation loss. Can go in different ways 

Survivors gene pool may no longer represent the original population By chance certain alleles may be over represented under represented or eliminated Genetic drift may continue to alter the gene pool until pop size is large

Ex. Elephant seals Little variation. Almost identical Ex. Cheetah. 

When a few individuals become isolated from a larger population

Isolated gene pool may no longer represent the original pop

Occurs when a few members migrate to a new habitation (found a new population) like an island

In the absence of gene flow, natural selection will alter allele frequencies in different ways due to genetic drift

Ex. Isolated islands.

Diverging genetically. 

Any structural, functional or behavioral difference that favors reproductive isolation is a by product of genetic change

Genetic changes between populations can be countered by gene flow ( homogenizes genetic differences)

Barriers prevent the exchange of genes between populations and leads to evolutionary divergence of each population.

Will lead to radical changes.

Ex. Meadowlark (wester and eastern) and rocky mountains. Birds went on both sides, but what makes them differ are the songs they sing to mate. 

Any heritable feature of body form, functioning, or behavior that prevents interbreeding between one or more genetically divergent populations

Maintains post adaptations for specific environment

Want to maintain the stronger ones for your own environment

Adaptation to different microclimates in the same habitat.

Based on ecology. More water available at bottom. The water availability is the factor.

Quercus lobata

Bigger

Querars agrifolia

Smaller. 

Isolated by distance or geographic barriers

Relative to the size of the organism

Ex. Louse ( lice) 2 subspecies

Head lice (pediculus humanus var. capitis)

Body lice (pediculus humanus var. vestimenti)

Wont cross, the neck area. Geographic isolation is the hairless region of the night

Based on size and locomotion

Isolated by behaviors

Copulation proceeded by courtship displays

Reciprocity produces sexual stimulation

Ex. The blue footed boobie

Checked his feet out, its size, dance, etc.

Paradise bird -Planet earth bird.

Blue bellied lizard or the "fence lizard"

Ostrich.

Ex. Birds Females genetically equipped to recognize behavioral signals by…

Isolated by reproductive part size or shape behaviors

Ex. Insects (tsetse flies)

Sword penis

The girl has the shape where the penis could enter and remain or stick too. If its too big or not the right size, she will be she will be killed and he will be stuck and die eventually.

Result in death or mortality

Minimum # of sperm required per species to achieve fertilization

Ex. Humans.

You need more sperm than eggs.

50-500 million sperm

20 million is infertile.

Strongest sperm survives.