INCORRECT
CORRECT
+0
Karma
Koofers
Working...
Final - Flashcards
Flashcard Deck Information
| Class: | GEOL 120 - Exploring Earth: Physical Geology (GT-SC2) |
| Subject: | Geosciences |
| University: | Colorado State University |
| Term: | Fall 2009 |
- of -
-
INCORRECT
-
CORRECT
-
SKIPPED
Hide Keyboard shortcuts
Next card
Previous card
Mark correct
Mark incorrect
Flip card
Start Over
Shuffle
Mode:
CARDS
LIST
? pages
PRINT
PRINT
|
Big Bang
|
o Happened 14 millions years ago in 13.7 Ga ̉̉ At one point in time, all mass and energy was packed together ̉̉ Within one second, protons and neutrons were made, and within three minutes, hydrogen atoms were made ̉̉ Hydrogen helped form new light elements to nucelosytnhesis ̉̉ He, Be, Li, B ̉̉ The universe continued to expand, cool, and decrease in density |
|
After Big Bang
|
Atoms began to bond, and created H2 molecules to fuel stars ̉̉ Gravity caused a collapse, and made gaseous nebulae (clouds/fog) ̉̉ The collapse cause an increase in temperature, density, and rate of rotation ̉̉ This cause accertation disks ̉̉ The heat and mass caused nuclear fusion ̉̉ First generation stats were formed from H2 ̉̉ The stars fr |
|
Nebulae
|
a cloud of gas or dust in space |
|
Stars
|
o Smaller in mass (like the sun) ̉̉ Burn slower ̉̉ Live longer ̉̉ Create lighter elements (C - #6) o Larger in mass ̉̉ Create larger elements (Fe - #26) ̉̉ Burn faster ̉̉ Live shorter o Caused by imploding (an inward collapse) which creates heavier objects |
Generated by
Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
Supernova
|
a short-lived, very bright object in space that results from the cataclysmic explosion marking the death of a very large star; the explosion ejects large quantities of matter into space to from new nebulae |
|
Doppler Effect and Expanding Universe
|
o Ambulance effect due to waves o Red waves mean they are longer wavelengths so the planetary matter is moving away from the earth if it is red |
|
Nucleosynthesis
|
Nucleosynthesis is the process of creating new atomic nuclei from pre-existing nucleons (protons and neutrons). o Stars = element factories o Big Bang created elements 1-5 o Stellar nucleosynthesis and made elements 6-26 o Elements over 26 were made during supernova |
|
Types of Planets in the Solar System
|
o Planet: cleared the neighborhood of other objects ̉ mass attracted to mass o Terretrial planets: Mercury ̉ Mars ̉̉ Small, dense, and rocky o Jovian planets: Jupiter ̉ Neptune ̉̉ Large, low density, gas-giant planets |
Generated by
Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
Nebular Theory (Solar System Formation)
|
nebula theory of planet formation: the concept that planets grow out of rings, gas, dust, and ice surrounding a new-born star o Hydrogen and helium left over from Big Bang o Heavier objects/elements produced by stellar fusion and supernovae ̉̉ Condenses into an accertation disk (pizza dough) o Star in center grows hotter and denser ̉ fusion (sun) o Dust rings ̉ particles ̉ planets ̉̉ All planets are wi |
|
Planetesimals -- Formation of the Earth
|
o Planetismal: gravity shapes into a sphere ̉̉ Interior is heavier ̉ made out of nickel and iron ̉̉ Makes a stony mantle |
|
How did the Moon form?
|
o Asteroid collision with the Earth ̉̉ Moon was made from excess debris ̉̉ The gases in the atmosphere cause moisture to condense o Made oxygen ̉ combined with hydrogen to make water ̉ made oceans |
|
Formation of the Atmosphere
|
o Most astronomers believe that the universe was formed due to the Big Bang Theory. After the nebula reaction occurred making planets and stars out of dust and gases Ãâ atmosphere |
Generated by
Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
Chapter 2
|
Chapter 2 |
|
Solar Wind
|
The solar wind is a stream of charged particles ejected from the upper atmosphere of the sun. |
|
Aurora
|
a stream of gases causes colors to appear in the thinner atmospheres |
|
Earth Magnetic Field
|
o Dipolar o Extends into space o Weakens with distance o Shields around the Earth |
Generated by
Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
Atmosphere of the Earth
|
The atmosphere of Earth is a layer of gases surrounding the core Earth that is retained by Earth's gravity. o As you go up in elevation, it gets less dense o Weight pushes (atms./bars) o 99% below 50 km o 1% between 50-500 km ̉̉ troposphere (mixing and weathering) ̉̉ tropopause (11-12km) ̉̉ stratosphere (13-30 km) o 78% Nitrogen, 21% Oxygen, 1% other elements |
|
Hypsometric Curve
|
A hypsometric curve is an empirical cumulative distribution function of elevations in a catchment. o hypsometric curve: a graph that plots surface elevation of the vertical axis and the percentage of the EarthÃâs surface on the horizontal axis o the main categories are continental and oceanic crust because they make up the biggest percentage |
|
Elemental Composition of the Earth
|
o 90% of the earth is iron (34.6%), oxygen (29.5%), silicon (15.2%), magnesium (12.7%), and other 10% is other natural elements |
|
What are minerals, glass, rocks?
|
o Minerals: inorganic crystalline solids ̉̉ Rock, hence, most of Earth ̉̉ Most rocks are silicate (Si and O) o Glasses: noncrystalline mineral-like matter o Rocks: aggregates of minerals ̉̉ Glass and organic compounds ̉̉ Igneous: cooled from liquid ̉̉ Sedimentary: debris cemented from preexisting rocks ̉̉ Metamorphic: changed by pressure and |
Generated by
Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
Type of melts and volatiles
|
o Melts: rocks heated to liquids ̉̉ Magma: molten rock under surface ̉̉ Lava: molten rock at surface o Volatile: materials changing into gas at surface ̉̉ H2O, CO2, CH4, and SO2 ̉̉ Released from volcanic eruptions |
|
Layered Earth
The Crust
|
̉̉ 70-40 km in mountains ̉̉ 2 miles ̉ 3 km in oceans ̉̉ Moho: division layer, marked by a change in velocity of seismic P waves ̉̉ Continental Crust ̉̉ average rock density is 2.7 grams per centimeter cubed ̉̉ average thickness 35-40 m ̉̉ granitic composition |
|
Layered Earth
Oceanic Crust
|
̉̉ Underlies ocean basins ̉̉ Density is 3.0 grams/ centimeter cubed ̉̉ Average thickness is 7-10 km ̉̉ Basaltic composition o Crust is 98.5% elements: O, Si, Al, Fe, Ca, Na, K, Mg o O is 93% |
|
Layered Earth
Mantle
|
̉̉ 2,885 km thick ̉̉ 10-150 km temperature makes rock flow ̉̉ hot mantle rises, cool sinks ̉̉ 3 subdivisions: upper, lower, transitional ̉̉ made of ultramafic rock; perioditite |
Generated by
Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
Layered Earth
The Core
|
̉̉ Iron rick; radius = 3471 km ̉̉ 2 components of seismic waves ̉̉ outer core: liquid ̉ iron, nickel, sulpher; 2225 km deep, density 10-12 grams/centimeter cubed ̉̉ inner core: solid iron-nickel alloy, radius 1220 km |
|
Temperature and Pressure Change Inside the Earth
|
o As the distance increases toward the core, the temperature increases and so does the pressure |
|
Lithosphere and Athenosphere
|
o Subdivision rigid vs. plastic behavior ̉̉ Lithosphere: outermost 100-150 km ̉̉ Non flowing, rigid material ̉̉ Moves as tectonic plates ̉̉ Two components: crust and upper mantle ̉̉ Asthenosphere ̉̉ Upper mantle below lithosphere |
|
Moho
|
o Moho: the seismic-velocity discontinuity that defines the boundary between the EarthÃâs crust and mantle |
Generated by
Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
Chapter 3
|
Chapter 3 |
|
Arguments for Plate Tectonics
|
o WegenerÃâs continental drift hypothesis: continents slowly move due to sea floor spreading o The lithosphere is bend elastically when loaded o The athenosphere bends plastically when loaded |
|
Bathymetric Feature of the Ocean Floor
|
o mid-ocean ridges: a 2 km high submarine mountain belt that forms along a divergent oceanic plate boundary o trenches: a deep elongate trough bordering a volcanic arc; a trench defines the trace of a convergent plate boundary o fracture zones: a narrow band of vertical fracture in the ocean floor; fracture zones lie roughly at right angles to a mid-ocean ridge, and the actively slipping part of a fracture zone is a transform fault |
|
Where do Earthquakes happen in relation to plate boundaries/mid-ocean ridges, trenches, etc.?
|
- earthquakes occur on plate boundaries, midocean ridges, and trenches |
Generated by
Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
What is sea-floor spreading?
|
o Sea-floor spreading: the gradual widening of an ocean basin as new oceanic crust forms at a mid-ocean ridge axis and then moves away from the axis o Upwelling in mantle o New crust moves away from ridges, gathering sediment o Sea-floor drives into sediment ̉̉ Helps explain continental drift |
|
Magnetic Anomalies
|
difference between the expected strength of the EarthÃâs magnetic field at a certain location and the actual measured strength of the field at that location o Toward magnetic measure ocean crust o Oscillates perpendicular with MOR o Anomalies parallel to MOR |
|
Chapter 4
|
Chapter 4 |
|
2 Types of Lithosphere
|
o lithosphere: the relatively rigid, nonflowable, outer 100- to 150 km thick layer of the Earth; constituting the crust and the top part of the mantle |
Generated by
Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
Plate Boundaries
|
o lithosphere fragmented into 20 pieces o plates move continuously at 1 to 15 cm per year ̉̉ very rapid on a geological time scale ̉̉ plates interact along boundaries o locations of plate boundaries have a high concentration of earthquakes and other dynamic phenomena o plate interiors are almost earthquake free |
|
3 Types of Plate Boundaries
|
o divergent: tectonic plate boundaries move apart ̉̉ middle of the ocean o convergent: tectonic plates move together o transform: tectonic plates slide sideways ̉̉ moves in pulses |
|
MORS
|
o linear mountain ranges in ocean basins o Snakes North and south in the mid-Atlantic Ocean o Axial rift valley o 500 m deep, 10 km wide o sea floor spreading opens axial rift valley o rising athensophere melts, which forms mafic magma o cooled magma solidifies into oceanic crustal rock ̉̉ pillow basalt magma quenched at sea-floor ̉̉ dikes: preserved magma conduits ̉̉ gabbro: deeper magma |
|
MORS
|
o black smokers: water heated by magma ̉̉ dissolved minerals and cycles back out rock ̉̉ in water, minerals and cycles back out rock ̉̉ in water minerals precipitate quickly o hot atmosphere at base of MOr o aging crust moves out due to heat ̉̉ cooling and increasing |
Generated by
Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
Convergent Margins
|
Setup, magma generation o Lithosphere plates move towards 1 another o 1 plate dives |
|
Why does subduction happen?
|
need an outside force for this to happen in oceanic crust o Subduction plate moves at 45 degrees ̉̉ Movement is at Wadati-Benioff earthquakes ̉̉ Frictional contact and mineral transformations ̉̉ Earthquakes deepen away from trench ̉̉ Quakes cease below 660 km |
|
Subduction Features
|
o Accretionary prisms: deformed sediment wedges ̉̉ Sediment is pushed above sea level ̉̉ Washington̉s Olympic Peninsula ̉̉ Taiwan o Volcanic arc: belt on an overriding plate ̉̉ Heat drives water out o Back arc basin: marginal sea behind basin |
|
Transform Boundary
|
o Lithosphere slides past; it isn̉t̉ created or destroyed ̉̉ Many transforms offset o MOR axis is offset by transform faults |
Generated by
Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
Triple Junctions
|
o Places where 3 plate boundaries meet ̉̉ Multiple combinations occur ̉̉ Migrate and change over time |
|
Hot Spot
|
volcanic plumes are independent of tectonic plates o Mafic magma is derived in lower mantle o Example: Hawaii |
|
Continental Rifting
|
o Example: East Africa o Arabian plate is drifting from African plate o Progressed to sea floor spreading in Red Sea and Gulf of Aden |
|
Driving Mechanisms for Plate Tectonics
|
o Plate collisions ̉̉ Subduction consumes ocean basins ̉̉ Ocean closure ends in continental collisions ̉̉ Collisions ̉structures̉ convergent plate boundary ̉̉ Tectonic collisions may involve 2 continents, continent and island arc ̉̉ 2 forces drive plate motions: ridge push, slab-pull, convection ̉̉ plate tec |
Generated by
Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
Plate Velocitites
|
late are always moving constantly |
|
Chapter 5
|
Chapter 5 |
|
What is a mineral?
|
o Over 4000 known minerals o ̉building blocks̉ of rocks/Earth o metals: Fe, Co, Pb, N, Al, Z o nonmetals: gypsum, limestone, aggregate, clay o world economy/dictated human history ̉̉ iron, copper, gold, diamonds, gems o mineral: naturally occurring, solid, formed geologically, definite, chemical composition, ordered atomic arrangement, mostly inorganic |
|
Mineral
|
A mineral is a naturally occurring solid formed through geological processes that has a characteristic chemical composition, a highly ordered atomic structure, and specific physical properties. |
Generated by
Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
Relation Rock - Mineral
|
made minerals Ãâ usually many o monomineralic: limestone, rock, salt, glacial ice |
|
Crystalline Structure
|
specifically ordered structure |
|
Crystals
|
A crystal or crystalline solid is a solid material, whose constituent atoms, molecules, or ions are arranged in an orderly repeating pattern extending in all three spatial dimensions. External Faces |
|
Hardness of Minerals
|
o Compared to known hardness of other minerals (diamond is the hardest) |
Generated by
Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
Formation of Diamonds
|
o Grows as atoms and attach to mineral surfaces, solidification by melts, precipitation by solution, solid-state diffusions |
|
Chapter 6
|
Chapter 6 |
|
Magma Vs. Lava
|
o Magma: below surface o Lava: above surface |
|
Relation Crystal Size to Cooling
|
o Intrusive: cools slowly underground o Extrusive: cools quickly at surface o Long time = large crystals and vice versa |
Generated by
Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
Magma Formations
|
o Solid (solidified minerals are carried by liquid) o Liquid (melt is comprised of mobile ions) ̉̉ Dominantly Si and O ̉̉ Lesser are Ca, Fe, Mg, Al, Na, K o Different mixes of elements yield different magmas o Gas (volatiles dissolved in the melt) ̉̉ Dry magma: no volatiles ̉̉ Wet magma: to 15% volatiles (water vapor, oxygen and carbon dioxide) |
|
Felsic, Intermediate, Mafic, and Ultramafic
|
o Based on silicon levels o The less silica the darker the rock |
|
Fractional Crystalization
|
o Atoms growing based on boundaries around it |
|
Pluton
|
A pluton in geology is an intrusive igneous rock body that crystallized from magma slowly cooling below the surface of the Earth. an irregular or blob-shaped intrusion; can range in size from tens of m across to tens of km across |
Generated by
Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
Intrusive
|
cools at depth not the surface |
|
Chapter 7
|
Chapter 7 |
|
What are sediments?
|
o Sediment is loose fragments of rocks or minerals broken off bedrock, mineral crystals that precipitate directly out of water, and shells |
|
Weathering
|
o Weathering: the processes that break up and corrode solid rock, eventually transforming It into sediment |
Generated by
Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
Physical Weathering
|
o Physical weathering: mechanical weathering, breaks intact rock into unconnected grains or chunks, collectively called debris or detritus (boulders, cobbles, pebbles, sand, silt, mud) â rocks break down into smaller pieces ââ Jointing: rocks buried deep in the earth endure enormous pressure because of the weight, causing natural cracks and might eventually collect in talus ââ Talus: rock found at the base of a slope ââ Frost wedging, root wedging, |
|
Chemical Weathering
|
o Chemical weathering: chemical reactions that alter or destroy minerals when rock come in contact with water solutions or air â rocks dissolve and/or transform into new minerals ââ Warm, wet conditions are needed ââ Saprolite: a layer of rotten rock, which is the product of chemical weathering ââ Dissolution: minerals dissolve into water ââ Hydrolysis: breaking down minerals with water ââ Oxidation: elements loses el |
|
Chemical Weathering
|
ââ Hydration: absorption of water into the crystal structure of minerals |
|
Silica Tetrahedras and Weathering
|
o The more arranged the silicates are, and the lower the temperature when they were formed the more resistant they are to weathering ââ Silicate minerals: 4 oxygen atoms to one silicon atom ââ Independent tetrahedral: shares no oxygenâs ââ Single-chain silicates: single chain structures bonded with iron and magnesium ââ Double-chain silicates: double chain of silica bonded together, Sheet silicates: 2 dimensional sheets of linked tet |
Generated by
Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
Soil Horizons
|
o O horizon: dark organic matter-rich surface layers o A horizon: organic and mineral matter o E horizon: transitional layer leached by organic acids o B horizon: organic-poor mineral rich layer o C horizon: slightly altered bedrock |
|
Four Classes of Sedimentary Rocks
|
o Clastic: made from weathered rock fragments o Biochemical: cemented shells of organisms o Organic: carbon-rich remains of plants o Chemical: minerals that crystallize directly from water |
|
Clastic Rocks
|
Clastic rocks are composed of fragments, or clasts, of pre-existing rock. o Clastic Rocks: quartz, calcite, hematite, clay minerals, breccia, conglomerate, sandstone, arkose, siltstone, shale, mudstone o Clastic rocks: sedimentary rocks made from weathered rock fragments o Classification is related to grain size/average diameter of the clasts |
|
Clastic Rocks
|
ââ Range from coarse to very fine grained ââ Boulder, cobble pebble, and pea gravel ââ Coarse, medium and fine sand ââ Coarse, medium and fine silt ââ Coarse and fine clay |
Generated by
Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
Clastic Rocks
|
ââ Coarse and fine clay o Classification can also be classified on mineral makeup of the clasts/clast composition ââ Individual minerals or rock fragments ââ Larger = rock fragments ââ Smaller = mineral grains |
|
What is angularity, sphericity, how does that reflect transport?
|
o Angularity and sphericity reflect the degree of transport ââ Fresh detritus = angular and non spherical ââ Grain roundness and sphericity increases with transport ââ Well rounded = long transport distances ââ Angular = small transport o Angularity: the degree to which grains have sharp of rounded edges or corners o Sphericity: measure of the degree to which a clast approaches the shape of a sphere |
|
Sorting, what does it indicate? Maturity, what is that? How does it relate to transport?
|
o Sorting: the uniformity of grain size; constancy of environmental energy ââ Well-sorted=uniform grain size; uniform energy; Poorly sorted=wide variety of grain sizes; variable energy o Maturity: measure of the degree of processing; Textural maturity: degree of roundness and sorting; Mineral maturity: degree of unstable mineral removal; Texture: average grain size decrease, roundness and sorting increase; Composition: unstable minerals (feldspars, mafics) decrease, stable minerals (quartz, |
|
What does the term "cement" mean in geology?
|
o Cement: mineral material that precipitates from water and fills the spaces between grains, holding the grains together |
Generated by
Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
What are biochemical and organic rocks?
|
o Sediments derived from living organisms, carbonate grains accumulate in the âcarbonate factoryâ ââ Biochemical rocks: sedimentary rock formed from material (such as shells) produced by living organisms ââ Examples: limestone, biochemical chert ââ Organic rocks: sedimentary rocks made from organic carbon ââ Examples: coal, oil shale, evaporates, travertine, dolostone, replacement chert, flint, jaspar, petrified wood |
|
What is coal composed of?
|
o Coal: is a black, combustible rock consisting of over 50% carbon, and so differs markedly from the other sedimentary rocks, the majority of the rock comes from plant matter |
|
What are evaporites?
|
o Evaporites: created from evaporated seawater ââ Examples: halite (rock salt) and gypsum |
|
Sedimentary Structures
|
o Asymmetric ripples: unidirectional flow ââ Short, steep down-current slip face ââ Long, gentle up-current ramp o Symmetric ripples: wave oscillations ââ Sharp ridges and concave-up troughs ââ Reflect back and forth near shore motion ââ Dunes: similar to ripples, just much larger ââ Cross-bedding: created by ripple and dune migration ââ Mud cracks: polygonal desiccation ââ Indicat |
Generated by
Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
Graded Bedding
|
In geology, a graded bed is one characterized by a systematic change in grain or clast size from the base of the bed to the top. o Graded bed: bedding layers that fine upwards ââ Indicate repeated pulses of high energy sediment transport ââ Coarsest material settles first, the medium, and so on |
|
Despositional Enviornments
|
o Depositional environments: locations where sediment accumulates ââ Terrestrial: deposited above sea level ââ Glacial: due to movement of ice ââ Mountain stream ââ Alluvial fan: sediments that pile up at a mountain front ââ Sand dune: wind-blown piles of well-sorted sand ââ Lake: large ponded bodies of water ââ River: channelized flow |
|
Sea-Level Transgression
|
o Sedimentary deposition is strongly linked to sea-level o Depositional belts shift landward or seaward in response o Layers of strata record deepening or shallowing upward ââ Transgression: flooding due to sea level rise ââ Regression: exposure due to sea level fall |
|
Diagenesis
|
In geology and oceanography, diagenesis is any chemical, physical, or biological change undergone by a sediment after its initial deposition and during and after its lithification, exclusive of surface alteration (weathering) and metamorphism. o Diagenesis: physical, chemical, and biochemical changes that modify sediment after deposition |
Generated by
Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
Chapter 8
|
Chapter 8 |
|
Metamorphism
|
Metamorphism is the solid-state recrystallization of pre-existing rocks due to changes in physical and chemical conditions, primarily heat, pressure, and the introduction of chemically active fluids. |
|
Both ____ and ____ change with depth
|
- pressure - temperature |
|
Types of stress-What is a stress
|
o Normal stress: operates perpendicular to the surface o Shear stress: operates sideways across the surface ⢠Stress: pressure is greater in one direction â commonplace result of tectonic forces |
Generated by
Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
What is foliation, how does it work?
|
o Foliated: Has a through-going planar fabric ⢠Subjected to differential stress; has significant component of platey minerals; classified by compositions, grain size, and foliation type |
|
Two Major Metamorphic Rock Types
|
o Foliated and non foliated o Non foliated: no planar fabric evident ⢠Crystallized without differential stress; comprised of equant minerals only; classified by mineral composition |
|
What is marble? How does it form?
|
o Marble: coarsely crystalline calcite or dolomites ⢠Forms from a limestone or dolostone protolith; extensive recrystallization completely changes the rock; original textures, and fossils in the parent are obliterated; ⢠Used as decorative and monument stone; exhibits a variety of colors |
|
What is contact metamorphism?
|
o Also called thermal metamorphism: metamorphism caused by heat conducted into country rock from an igneous intrusion o Due to heat from magma invading rock o Creates zoned bands of alteration in host rock |
Generated by
Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
What is burial metamorphism?
|
o As sediments are buried in a sedimentary basin ⢠P increases because of the weight of the overburden ⢠T increases because of the geothermal gradient |
|
What is regional metamorphism?
|
o Also called dynamo thermal metamorphism: metamorphism of a broad region, usually the result of deep burial during an orogeny o Creates foliated rocks o Collision and moble belts |
|
What is subduction metamorphism?
|
o Creates the unique blueschist facies o Trenches and accretionary prisms have a low geothermal gradient (low pressure), and high pressure |
|
What is shock metamorphism?
|
o When earth is struck my meteorite or asteroid ⢠Impact generates a shock wave ⢠Extremely high pressure, heat that vaporizes or melts large masses of rock |
Generated by
Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
Chapter 9
|
Chapter 9 |
|
Three forms of volcanic products
|
⢠Three forms of volcanic products o Lava flows: sheets or mounds of lava that flow onto the ground surface or sea floor in molten form and then solidify o Pyroclastic debris: fragmented material that spread out of a volcano and landed on the ground or sea floor in a solid form o Gas: |
|
Thick versus runny lava flows
|
o Depends on viscosity via composition |
|
How do lava tubes form?
|
o Lava tubes: insulated, tunnel-like conduit through which lava moves within a flow ⢠A cooled crust forms on top of a basalt flow â a conduit, a lava tube, develops in the flow ⢠The tubes prevent cooling, facilitating flow for miles ⢠Lave tubes become caves that can transmit water |
Generated by
Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
Basaltic lava flows
|
o Basaltic lava flows: mafic lava â very hot, low silica, and low viscosity ⢠Are often thin and fluid ⢠Can flow rapidly and for long distances ⢠Lavas with low silica/ high iron and magnesium |
|
Andesitic lava flows
|
o Andesitic lava flows: lavas with moderate silica, iron and magnesium ⢠Do not flow rapidly ⢠Mound around the vent and flow slowly ⢠Out crust fractures creating rubble ⢠Remain close to the vent |
|
Rhyolitic Lava Flows
|
o Rhyolitic lava flows: high silica, low iron and magnesium ⢠Most viscous ⢠Rarely flows ⢠Plugs the vent as a lava dome ⢠Sometimes lava domes are blown up |
|
What is pyroclastic debris?
|
o Pyroclastic debris: fragmental material ejected from a volcano o Tephra: deposits of pyroclastic debris |
Generated by
Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
What is pyroclastic flow?
|
o Pyroclastic flow: Clouds and avalanches of hot ash clouds that races down slope |
|
What are lahars? Where does the water for lahars come from?
|
o Lahar: a thick slurry formed when volcanic ash and debris mix with water, either in rivers or from rain or melting snow and ice on the flank of a volcano o Wet debris coming out of the top of a volcano |
|
What kind of gases can occur in a magma?
|
o 1% - 9% of magma may be gas ⢠Water â most abundant dissolved gas ⢠Carbon dioxide â second in abundance ⢠Sulfur dioxide â rotten egg smell |
|
Why are gases expelled as a magma rises (and thereby emitted by volcanoes)?
|
o Gases are expelled as magma rises â P drops o Sulfur dioxide reacts with water to form aerosol sulfuric acid o Style of gases escape and controls eruption violence ⢠Low viscosity (basalt): easy escape; mellow eruption ⢠High viscosity (rhyolite): difficult escape; violent eruption |
Generated by
Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
Magma Chamber
|
A magma chamber is a large underground pool of molten rock found beneath the surface of the Earth's crust. o Magma chamber: located in the upper curst ⢠Magma cools here to form intrusive rock ⢠Magma may erupt along linear tear |
|
Vents
|
o Vent: lava outlet o the volcano and located anywhere ⢠Summit vent: on top of the volcano ⢠Flank vent: on side of the volcano |
|
Crater
|
o Crater: bowl shaped depression on top of a volcano ⢠Form as erupted lava piles up around the vent |
|
Caldera
|
A caldera is a cauldron-like volcanic feature usually formed by the collapse of land following a volcanic eruption such as the ones at Yellowstone National Park in the US and Glen Coe in Scotland. o Caldera: gigantic volcanic depression ⢠Magma chamber empties and volcano collapses into it ⢠Crater Lake, Oregon and Yellowstone National Park |
Generated by
Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
Volcano Types and Relation to Viscosity of Lava
|
o Shield Volcanoes: broad, slightly domed-shaped; low slope and covers large geographic areas ⢠Low viscosity lava o Cinder cones: conical piles of tephra; built of symmetrical with a deep summit crater ⢠Fragmental lava o Stratovolcanoes: composite volcanoes ⢠Large cone shaped volcano ⢠Alternating layers of lava and tephra |
|
Effusive and Explosive Eruptions and Relation to Magma/Lava Composition
|
o Effusive eruptions: produce lava flows ⢠Commonly basaltic; creates shields o Explosive eruptions: produce pyroclastic flows ⢠Andesitic and rhyolitic compositions |
|
Relation of Plate Tectonic Setting to Volcanism
|
o Plate motion is dominant control on volcanism and linked to tectonic settings ⢠Hot spots: where mantle plumes cut the lithosphere ⢠MOR: spreading axes ⢠Convergent boundaries: subduction zones ⢠Continental rifts: incipient ocean basins |
|
Volcanic Hazards - Which ones do exist, what do they cause
|
o Cause great harm to humans â changed human history and deaths ⢠Many populated areas ring volcanoes ⢠Not enough knowledge of volcanoes o Lava flows (mostly basaltic flows) ⢠May completely destroy objects but rarely kill people |
Generated by
Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
Volcanic Hazards
|
o Tephra: ash and lapilli fall around the volcano ⢠Bury landscapes killing plants and crops ⢠Heavy and gritty causing abrasion and collapsing ⢠Floodwaters easily move tephra and lahars ⢠Pyroclastic flows ⢠Blast: rarely, explosions are ejected sideways ⢠Landslides ⢠Lahars: mudflows result when water moves ash ⢠Earthquakes ⢠Tsunamis ⢠Gas |
|
Active Versus Extinct Volcanoes
|
o Recurrence interval: average time between eruptions ⢠Active: erupting, recently erupted or likely to erupt ⢠Dormant: hasnât erupted in 100s to 1000s of years but could still do so ⢠Extinct: no longer capable of doing to |
|
Which warning signs exist that an eruption may happen?
|
o Earthquake activity: magma flow increases seismicity o Heat flow: magma causes volcanoes to heat up o Changes in shape: magma causes expansion o Emission increases: changes in gas mix and volume |
|
What are volcanic bombs? How do they form?
|
o Volcanic bomb: a large piece of byroclastic debris thrown into the atmosphere during a volcanic eruptions ⢠Forms the same as any other pyroclastic debris |
Generated by
Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
Hot Spots and Their Possible Positions Related to Plates/Plate Boundaries
|
o Hot spots are formed from magma |
|
Chapter 10
|
Chapter 10 |
|
Different Types of Faults
|
o Normal fault: a fault which the hanging wall black moves down the slope of the fault o Reverse fault: steeply dipping fault on which the hanging wall block slides up o Thrust fault: gently dipping reverse fault; hanging wall block moves up the slope of the fault o Strike-slip fault: fault In which one block slides horizontally past another so there is no relative vertical motion |
|
How do you call offset at a fault?
|
o Amount of movement = displacement â displacement is also called offset or slip â markers may reveal the amount of offset |
Generated by
Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
Active and Inactive Faults - What does that mean?
|
o Active faults: ongoing stresses produce motion o Inactive faults: motion occurred in the geologic past |
|
Epicenter and Hypocenter
|
o Hypocenter: the spot within the earth where the earthquake originates o Epicenter: land surface above the hypocenter |
|
Ductile and Brittle
|
o Ductile: the bending and flowing of a material without cracking and breaking subjected to stress o Brittle: the cracking and fracturing of a material subjected to stress |
|
Type of Earthquake Waves and Their Relative Traveling Velocities
|
o Body waves: pass through Earthâs interior ⢠Fastest as primary (P) waves ⢠Slower as secondary (S) waves o Slowest and most destructive ⢠Surface waves: travel along earths surface ⢠Love waves: S waves intersecting the surface ⢠Rayleigh waves: P waves intersecting the surface |
Generated by
Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
Seismic Stations to Locate Earthquakes - How do they work?
|
o Data from three stations can pinpoint the epicenter ⢠Circle drawn around each station with distances to the epicenter and the point of intersection is where the earthquake is |
|
Relation of Earthquakes to Plate Boundaries
|
o Earthquakes usually happen because of plate boundaries and movement in the faults |
|
Shallow Earthquakes Vs. Deep Ones and in Which Plate Tectonic Setting to Expect Shallow/Medium to Deep Ones
|
o Shallow: divergent and transform boundaries ⢠0-20 km ⢠Along MOR ⢠Transform boundaries ⢠Shallow part of trenches ⢠Continental crust o Deep: occur along the subduction trace ⢠Intermediate: 20-300 km ⢠Deep: 300-670 km o Earthquakes are rare below 670 km |
|
Generation of Tsunamis
|
o When plates move, the water moves along side then the pressure jets forward |
Generated by
Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
Chapter 11
|
Chapter 11 |
|
Orogenesis
|
Orogeny (Greek for "mountain generating") refers to natural mountain building, and may be studied as (a) a tectonic structural event, (b) as a geographical event, and (c) a chronological event. |
|
What effects does orogenesis have on rocks?
|
o Pushes rocks up, since it is too buoyant to sink |
|
Relation of orogenesis to Plate Boundaries
|
o No forms or faults |
Generated by
Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
Types of Deformation
|
o Translation: change in location o Rotation: change in orientation o Distortion: change in shape |
|
What is strain?
|
o Strain: change in shape of an object in response to deformation |
|
Two types of strain
|
o Brittle: rocks break by fracturing o Ductile: rocks deform by flow and folding |
|
What are joints, faults? How do they form?
|
o Joints: planar rock fractures without offset ⢠Result from tensional tectonic stresses o Faults: planar fractures offset by movement across the break ⢠Sudden movement along faults cause earthquakes |
Generated by
Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
Types of Faults
|
Recognize by Diagram o Vertical o Horizontal o Dipping ⢠Dip-slip: blocks move parallel to fault plane dip ⢠Strike slip: blocks move parallel to fault plane strike ⢠Oblique slip: combination of dip-slip and strike slip |
|
Which is the hanging wall, which is the footwall?
|
o Hanging wall: the rock or sediment above an inclined fault plane o Footwall: below a fault |
|
What is a fold? Syncline, anticline
|
o Fold: bend or wrinkly of rock layers or foliation; folds form as a consequence of ductile deformation o Syncline: trough-like fold; limbs dip toward the hinge o Anticline: rick-like fold; limbs dip away from the hinge |
|
What is brittle, what is ductile?
|
o Brittle: bends and breaks o Ductile: bends does not break |
Generated by
Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
Formation of fold
|
o Flexural folds: layers slip as stratified rocks are bent o Flow folding: form y ductile flow of hot, soft rock |
|
What is orogenic collapse? Why does this happen?
|
o Orogenic collapse: process in which mountain begin to collapse under their own weight and spread out laterally ⢠Mountains can only get so high |
|
Which is the highest mountain on Earth? Where is it located
|
o Mount Everest o Himalayas |
|
Chapter 12
|
Chapter 12 |
Generated by
Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
Relative Age and Numerical Ages
|
o Relative age: the age of one feature with respect to another o Numerical age: the age of a feature in years |
|
Uniformitarianism
|
o Principle of uniformitarianism: physical processes we observe today also operated in the past and were responsible for the formation of geologic feature we see in outcrops o Implies that the present is the key to the past o The past compares to the present because they change at comparable rates |
|
Superposition
|
o Principle of superposition: in a sequence of sedimentary rocks, each layer must be younger than the one below â oldest at the bottom, youngest at the top |
|
Fossil Succession - What does it mean?
|
o Principle of fossil succession: in a stratigraphic sequence, different species of fossil organisms appear in a definite order; once a fossil species disappears in a sequence of strata, it never reappears higher in the sequence |
Generated by
Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
Unconformities
|
o Angular unconformity: an unconformity in which the strata below were tilted or folded before the unconformity developed; strata below the unconformity therefore have a different tilt than strata above; Nonconformity: a type of unconformity at which sedimentary rocks overlie basement (older intrusive igneous rocks and/or metamorphic rock); Disconformities: an unconformity parallel to the two sedimentary sequences it separates; Unconformity: a boundary between two different rock sequences representing an in |
|
Earth History and Relation to Strata
|
o Correlation: the process of defining the age relations between the strata at one locality and the strata at another o Looks at strata to compare elements of it and find relative age |
|
Geological Time Scale
|
o Geological time scale: a time scale that defines geological time o Divided into eras, periods, and epochs o Hadean, Archean, Proterozoic, and Phanerozoic Eon |
|
How old is the Earth?
|
o 4.57 billion-years old â only evidence showing back to 4.0 Ga because of a meteorite bombardment |
Generated by
Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
When did life appear on Earth?
|
o Phanerozoic Eon o The last 0.000001% of Earth history |
|
Numerical Ages - Concept
|
o It provides the age to geological features in years |
|
Half life of Isotopes - How does that function?
|
o The time it takes for half of a group of a radioactive elementâs isotopes to decay |
|
Radiometric Dating - Isotopes; which rock types work for this?
|
o Only certain rocks and minerals with parentâ daughter isotopes can be used o Minerals: garnets, micas, (potassium-bearing minerals) mica, feldspar, hornblende, (uranium-bearing minerals) zircon, apatite, uraninite, o Elements: Sm, Nd, Rb, Sr, U, Pb, K, Ar; samarium, neodymium, rubidium, strontium, uranium, lead, potassium, argon o SmâNd 1.06 billion, RbâSr 48.8 billion, Uâ Pb 4.5 billion, K â Ar 1.3 billion, U â Pb 713 billion |
Generated by
Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
Other Numerical Ages
|
o Counting rings in trees of layers in sediment o The growth rate of trees o The organic productivity of lakes and seas o The sediment supply carried by rivers o The growth rate of chemically precipitated sedimentary rocks o The growth rate of shell-secreting organisms o The layering in glaciers |
|
Other Numerical Ages
|
o Growth rings and rhythmic layering: a rhythmic layering that develops in trees, travertine deposits, and Shelly organisms as a consequence of seasonal changes o Magnetostratigrapy: the comparison of the pattern of magnetic reversals in a sequence of strata, with a reference column showing the succession of reversals through time o Fission tracks: a line of damage formed in the crystal lattice of a mineral by the impact of an atomic particle ejected ruing the decay of a radioactive isotope |
|
Chapter 13
|
Chapter 13 |
|
Methods for Studying the Past
|
o Identifying ancient orogens: comparing mountains of today through regions of high, rugged topography which leads to the development of unconformities o Recognizing the growth of continents: comparing and contrasting the development of continental crust since it did not all develop at the same time o Recognizing past depositional environments: environments changed through out the same time |
Generated by
Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
Methods for Studying the Past
|
o Recognizing past changes in relative sea level: determining what happened to things based on depositional environments o Recognizing positions of continents in the past: study of how the continents have moved o Recognizing past climates: gain insight based on past latitudes o Recognizing life evolution: changes in assembles of fossils |
|
Know the Eons
|
o Hadean: the oldest of the Precambrian cons; the time between Earthâs origin and the formation of the first rocks that have been preserved; Archean: the middle of the Precambrian Era; Proterozoic: the most recent of the Precambrian eons; Phanerozoic: the most recent eon, an interval of time from 542 Ma to the present; Paleozoic: the oldest era of the phanerozoic eon; Mesozoic: the middle of the three Phanerozoic eras; it lasted from 245 Ma to 65 Ma; Cenozoic: the most recent era of the phanero |
|
Hadean
|
o First 600 million years of the earth o Planet was so hot that the surface was a magma ocean o Can gain insight by studying the moon and meteorites |
|
Archean
|
o Began in 3.8 Ga o Permanent continental crust was formed out of volcanic arcs and hot-spot volcanoes that were too buoyant to sub duct o Five principal rock types: gneiss, greenstone, granite, greywacke, chert o Stromatolies: layered mounds of sediment formed by cyanobacteria; cynobacterai secrete a mucous like substance to which sediment sticks, and as each layer of cynobacteria gets buried by sediment, it colonizes the surface of the new sediment, building a mound upward |
Generated by
Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
Proterozoic
|
o 542 million years ago o Fewest/larger lithosphere plates, new continental crust formed at slower rates o The assembly of North America |
|
What is a supercontinent? Which supercontinents existed?
|
o Supercontinent: supercontinents develop and later break apart, to make yet another supercontinent later on o North America, Pangaea |
|
Atmospheric oxygen evolution during Proterozic and its importance to life
|
o Atmospheric oxygen increase to mix with oxygen to make water o Also allowed diversification of life, and allowed multicellular life with cells and nucleuses o Made the ozone layer |
|
Proterozoic Fauna
|
unusual soft bodied fossils |
Generated by
Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
Phanerozoic and subdivision of Phanerozoic into 3 eras
|
o Phanerozoic eon: the most recent eon, an interval of time from 542 Ma to the present o Paleozoic era: oldest o Mesozoic era: middle o Cenozoic era: latest |
|
Cambrian Explosion; what characterized life in the Cambrian and Ordovician
|
o First hard-shell development o Development of marine life and complex ecosystems |
|
Silurian and Devonian life: land plants appeared for the first time; other life forms characteristic of this time
|
o First: vertebrates, crinoids, green algae and primitive land plants |
|
Late Paleozoic: Supercontinent Pangaea
|
Desert Inside |
Generated by
Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
Life Evolution During Carboniferous and Permian
|
o Witnessed mass extinction |
|
End-Paleozoic Extinction
|
o Mass extinction |
|
Triassic and Jurassic Life Evolution
|
o Dinosaurs new source of life and created the Atlantic Ocean |
|
Cretaceous Life Evolution
|
o Asteroid ended it |
Generated by
Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
K-T boundary event + extinction
|
o 90% of plankton extinct o 75% of plants extinct o Boundary between Cretaceous and Tertiary |
|
Cenozoic - from when to when?
|
o 65 Ma to Present |
|
Quaternary Period
|
The Quaternary period is the youngest of three periods of the Cenozoic era in the geologic time scale of the ICS. Ice Age |
|
Cenozoic Period
|
Humans |
Generated by
Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
Chapter 14
|
Chapter 14 |
|
Five Fundamental Forces of Energy
|
o Nuclear fusion in sun o Gravity o Nuclear fission o Photosynthesis o Chemical reactions o Fossil fuels |
|
How to use solar energy? Two ways of using solar energy
|
o Used directly from suns nuclear fusion reactor which is controlled by humans o Used as electricity when converted or heat |
|
How to use gravity to get energy; hydroelectric power
|
o Gravity from moon makes ocean tides o Can also be extracted from wind and running natural water o Can drive turbines |
Generated by
Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
Energy from Chemical Reactions
|
o Energies can be stored in chemical bonds o Exothermic energy |
|
Fission
|
Fission is a splitting of something into two parts. o Cracks in certain atoms yields a lot of energy |
|
Geothermal Energy
|
o Earthâs internal heat o 1. Residual heat from planet formation o Geothermal gradient |
|
Hydrocarbons
|
In organic chemistry, a hydrocarbon is an organic compound consisting entirely of hydrogen and carbon. o H-C bonds â comes from once living creatures o Pure compounds o Complex mixtures which are separated by refining o Chain and ring like |
Generated by
Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
Short-Chained Hydrocarbons
|
o Viscosity: tendency to flow o Volatility: tendency to evaporate o Short Chained H-C ⢠Low viscosity high volality ⢠Vapors at room temperature ⢠Examples: methane, propane |
|
Moderate-Chained Hydrocarbons
|
⢠Medium viscosity and volality ⢠Liquids at room temperature ⢠Examples: methane, propane |
|
Long-Chained Hydrocarbons
|
⢠High viscosity low volatility ⢠Solids at room temperature ⢠Example: tar |
|
Oil and Gas Genesis - What is a source rock?
|
o Oil and gas from plankton and marine algae o Lithification after death with very little oxygen |
Generated by
Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
Oil and Gas Window
|
o Oil window: the narrow range of temperatures under which oil can form in a source rock o Gas window: range of temperatures which gas can from |
|
What is thermogenic gas vs. methaogenic gas?
|
o Thermogenic gas: breakdown of oil o Methogenic gas: coal bed methane |
|
Hydrocarbon Systems
|
o Organic rich black shale is source of oil and gas o Organic matter transformed within oil window o Source rock doesnât store oil or gas in conventional reservoirs |
|
4 Features that are important to create an oil reserve
|
o Porosity: open space in rock that stores fluid o Permeability: ease of fluid movement in pore space o Low= small well yields o High= large well yields |
Generated by
Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
Source Rock
|
In petroleum geology, source rock refers to rocks from which hydrocarbons have been generated or are capable of being generated. o Source rock: a rock (organic rich soil_ containing the raw materials from which hydrocarbons eventually form |
|
Reservoir Rocks
|
o Rocks that contain or could contain easily accessible oil and as o Meaning hydrocarbons that can be extracted out of the ground |
|
Hydrocarbon Migration
|
o Oil and gas are less dense than water so they rise to the surface |
|
4 Features that are important to create and oil reserve
|
o Oil seep: open space at surface to extract oil ⢠Can also be called a trap |
Generated by
Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
Traps and Seals
|
o Seal rock: rocks that lie above reservoir rocks that can be extracted o Anticline trap: fold with an arch like shape in which the limbs dip away from the hinge o Fault trap: fracture on which one body of rock slides past another o Salt-dome trap: a rising bulbous dome of salt that bends up the adjacent layers of sedimentary rock o Stratigraphic trap |
|
What are seismic reflection profiles? How are they created?
|
o Seismic reflection profile: a cross-sectional view of the crust made by measuring the reflection of artificial seismic waves off boundaries between different layers of rock in the crust |
|
Drilling Procedures
|
o Drills through the mud and sucks the oil out of the rocks |
|
Oil Production
|
o Through the reserves of oil |
Generated by
Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
Primary and Secondary Recovery
|
o Primary recovery: natural displacing of oil o Secondary recovery: forced displacing of oil |
|
Refinement of Oil
|
o Distilling oil in a refinery from crude oil o Heats molecules and cracks larger ones |
|
Tar Sands
|
o Tar sands: sand or sandstone containing such high concentrations of bitumen |
|
Oil Shale
|
o Oil shale: oil containing kerosene |
Generated by
Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
What are gas hydrates? How do they form?
|
o Gas hydrates: chemical compound consisting of a methane molecule surrounded by a cage like arrangement of water molecules o Forms with gas mixed with water and ice |
|
What is coal? Formation process? Requirements to form coal?
|
o Coal: black brittle sedimentary rock that burns o Consists of elemental carbon mixed with minor amounts of organic chemicals, quartz, and clay o Coal forms from plant material grew in coal swamps |
|
Main Coal Forming Era?
|
Carboniferous |
|
Peat-Different Ranks of Coal
|
o Compaction and partial decay of the vegetation transforms into peat o Peat turns into coal when buried deeply by sediment |
Generated by
Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
Two Types of Coal Mining
|
o Coal reserves o Coal bed rock |
|
Nuclear Power
|
o Cutting atoms for high sources of energy o Heat |
|
Geology of Uranium
|
o Little is found naturally |
|
Nuclear Problems and Nuclear Waste
|
o Health and food dangers o Problems disposing of waste |
Generated by
Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
Wind Energy
|
Wind Reactors |
|
Biomass Energy
|
Energy from wood, waste, etc. |
|
What does peak oil refer to?
|
o Point where maximum amount of oil has been used |
|
Chapter 15
|
Chapter 15 |
Generated by
Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
Two Major Categories of Mineral Resources
|
o Metallic mineral resources o Nonmetallic mineral resources |
|
What is a metal?
|
o Opaque, shiny, smooth solids that can conduct electricity and can be bent, drawn into wire, or hammered into thin sheets |
|
What is an ore? What is ore grade?
|
o Ore: rocks containing a concentrated accumulation of native metals or ore minerals o Ore grade: concentration of useful metal in an ore |
|
Magmatic Ores, formation
|
o Magmatic: deposited and accumulated in the bottom of a magma chamber o Forms massive-sulfide deposits |
Generated by
Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
Hydrothermal deposits, formation
|
o Solutions entering a region of lower pressure, temperature, different acidity, and/or different availability of oxygen, the metals come out of solution and form ore minerals that precipitate in fractures and pores |
|
Sedimentary Deposits - BIF
|
o Solutions entering a region of lower pressure, temperature, different acidity, and/or different availability of oxygen, the metals come out of solution and form ore minerals that precipitate in fractures and pores |
|
Residual Mineral Deposits
|
o Residual mineral deposits: soils in which the residuum left behind after leaching by rainwater is so concentrated in metals that the soil itself becomes an ore deposit o Example: aluminum ore |
|
Two Types of Mines to Extract Ores
|
o Open pit mines o Underground mines |
Generated by
Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
Nonmetallic Resources
|
o Building stone, gravel, sand, gypsum, phosphate, salt |
|
Chapter 16
|
Chapter 16 |
|
Mass Movement Types
|
Based on: -type of material involved (rock, regolith, or snow and ice) -the velocity of the movement (fast, intermediate, slow) - the character of the moving mass (chaotic cloud, slurry, or coherent body) - the environment in which the movement takes place (subaerial or submarine) -creep, solifiluction, and rock glaciers; slumping; mudflows and debris flows; avalanches; rockfalls and debris falls, submarine mass movements |
|
Rock Glaciers
|
- water mixing with the land and making the land eventually move down |
Generated by
Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
Slumping
|
- downslope movement in which a mass of regolith detaches from its substrate along a spoon-shaped sliding surface and slips downward semicoherently |
|
Mudflows
|
- a downslope movement of mud at slow to moderate speed |
|
Debris Flow
|
A debris flow is a fast moving, liquified landslide of unconsolidated, saturated debris that looks like flowing concrete. - a downslope movement of mud mixed with larger rock fragments |
|
Lahars
|
A lahar is a type of mudflow or landslide composed of pyroclastic material and water that flows down from a volcano, typically along a river valley. - a thick slurry formed when volcanic ash and debris mix with water, either in rivers or from rain or melting snow and ice on the flank of a volcano |
Generated by
Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
Landslides
|
A landslide (or landslip) is a geological phenomenon which includes a wide range of ground movement, such as rock falls, deep failure of slopes and shallow debris flows, which can occur in offshore, coastal and onshore environments. - a sudden movement of rock and debris down a non vertical slope |
|
Avalanches
|
An avalanche is a rapid flow of snow down a slope, from either natural triggers or human activity. - a turbulent cloud of debris mixed with air that rushes down a steep hill slope at high velocity; the debris can be rock and/or snow |
|
3 Types of Submarine Mass Movements
|
1. submarine slumps 2. submarine debris flows 3. turbidity currents |
|
Submarine Slumps
|
- the underwater downslope movement of semi coherent block of sediment along a weak mud detachment |
Generated by
Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
Submarine Debris Flows
|
- the moving mass breaks apart to form a slurry containing larger clasts (pebbles to boulders) suspended in a mud matrix |
|
Turbidity Currents
|
- a submarine avalanche of sediment and water that speeds down a submarine slope |
|
Slope Stability-Angle of Repose
|
angle of repose: the angle of the steepest slope that a pile of un-cemented material can attain without collapsing from the pull of gravity |
|
Liquefaction of Sediment
|
-causing the sediment to become a slurry, but without strong bonds it becomes weak |
Generated by
Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
Failure Triggers (p. 568-569)
|
- shocks, vibrations, and liquefaction - changing slope angles, slope loads, and slop support - changing the slope strength |
|
Prevention of Mass Movement Hazards (p. 577-578)
|
- identifying regions at risk - revegetation - regrading - reducing subsurface water - preventing undercutting - constructing safety structures - controlled blasting of unstable slopes |
|
Chapter 17
|
Chapter 17 |
|
Hydrologic Cycle
|
The water cycle, also known as the hydrologic cycle, describes the continuous movement of water on, above and below the surface of the Earth. - the continual passage of water from reservoir to reservoir in the Earth System |
Generated by
Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
Steps of how Streams Form
|
Depends on... - the velocity of the flow, for faster flow erodes more rapidly than slower flow - the strength of the substrate, for weaker substrate can be eroded more rapidly than stronger substrate - the amount of vegetation cover, for un vegetated ground can be eroded more rapidly than land held together by plant roots |
|
Steps of Stream Formation
|
- water turns into a sheet wash - erodes down to where the water flows the most - erosion makes new channel - tributaries form in the headward erosion lengthening channel to make trunk streams |
|
Drainage Networks
|
- an array of interconnecting streams that together drain an area - dendritic - radial - rectangular - trellis |
|
Dendritic
|
*In geomorphology, a drainage system is the pattern formed by the streams, rivers, and lakes in a particular watershed. |
Generated by
Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
Radial
|
- forming on the surface of a cone-shaped mountain flow outward from the mountain peak, like spokes on a wheel |
|
Rectangular
|
- in places where a rectangular grid of fractures (vertical joints) breaks up the ground, channels form along the preexisting fractures, and streams join each other at right angles |
|
Trellis
|
- develops across a landscape of parallel valleys and ridges, major tributaries flow down a valley and join a trunk stream that cuts across the ridges |
|
Watershed
|
- the region that collects water that feeds into a given drainage network |
Generated by
Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
Drainage Basin
|
A drainage basin is an extent of land where water from rain and melting snow or ice drains downhill into a body of water, such as a river, lake, reservoir, estuary, wetland, sea or ocean. -an array of interconnecting streams that together drain an area |
|
Permanent Streams
|
- a stream that flows year-round because its bed lies below the water table, or because more water is supplied from upstream that can infiltrate the ground |
|
Ephemeral Stream
|
- a stream whose bed lies above the water table, so that the stream flows only wen the rate at which water enters the stream from rainfall or meltwater exceeds the rate at which water infiltrate the ground below |
|
Discharge
|
- the volume of water in a conduit or channel passing a point in one second Q=Velocity * Depth * Width |
Generated by
Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
3 Types of Sediment Load
|
- dissolved load: ions dissolved in a stream's water - suspended load: tiny solid grains carried along by a stream without settling to the floor of the channel - bed load: large particles, such as sand, pebbles, or cobbles, that bounce or roll along a stream |
|
Base Level
|
The base level of a river or stream is the lowest point to which it can flow, often referred to as the 'mouth' of the river. - the lowest elevation a stream channel's floor can reach at a given locality |
|
Alluvial Fans
|
An alluvial fan is a fan-shaped deposit formed where a fast flowing stream flattens, slows, and spreads typically at the exit of a canyon onto a flatter plain. - a gently sloping apron of sediment dropped by an ephemeral stream at the base of a mountain in arid or semi-arid regions |
|
Braided Streams
|
- a sediment-choked stream consisting of entwined subchannels |
Generated by
Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
Meandering Streams
|
- a reach of stream containing many meanders (snake like curves) |
|
Meander Change
|
- when erosion eats through a meander neck, a straight reach called a cut off develops - the meander that has been cut off is called an OXBOW LAKE |
|
Sedimentation of Meandering Streams
|
- usually at the curves |
|
Deltas
|
- a wedge of sediment formed at a river mouth when the running water of the stream enters standing water, the current slows, the stream loses competence, and sediment settles out |
Generated by
Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
Stream Piracy
|
- the situation in which head ward erosion causes one stream to intersect the course of another, previously independent stream, so that the intersected stream starts to flow down the channel of the first stream |
|
Drainage Reversal
|
- water flowed into the ocean - example: South America's Western Coast and Andes |
|
Flash Floods
|
A flash flood is a rapid flooding of geomorphic low-lying areas - washes, rivers, dry lakes and basins. - a flood that occurs during unusually intense rainfall or as the result of a dam collapse, during which the floodwater rise very fast |
|
Flood Risks and 100 Year Flood
|
- probability so low it could only possibly happen every 100 years |
Generated by
Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
Chapter 18
|
Chapter 18 |
|
Undersea Landscapes and Plate Tectonics
|
- move more because it is more loose |
|
Continental Shelf
|
The continental shelf is the extended perimeter of each continent and associated coastal plain, and was part of the continent during the glacial periods, but is undersea during interglacial periods such as the current epoch by relatively shallow seas (known as shelf seas) and gulfs. - a broad, shallowly submerged region of a continent along a passive margin |
|
Continental Slope
|
The continental shelf is the extended perimeter of each continent and associated coastal plain, and was part of the continent during the glacial periods, but is undersea during interglacial periods such as the current epoch by relatively shallow seas (known as shelf seas) and gulfs. - the slope at the edge of a continental shelf, leading down to the deep sea floor |
Generated by
Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
continental volcanic arc
|
- a long curving chain of subaerial volcanoes on the margin of a continent adjacent to a convergent boundary |
|
continental rifting
|
- the process by which a continent stretches and splits along a belt; if it is successful, rifting separates a larger continent into two smaller continent separated by a divergent boundary |
|
continental rise
|
The continental shelf is the extended perimeter of each continent and associated coastal plain, and was part of the continent during the glacial periods, but is undersea during interglacial periods such as the current epoch by relatively shallow seas (known as shelf seas) and gulfs. - the sloping sea floor that extends from the lower part of the continental slope to the abyssal plain |
|
Active Margin
|
In plate tectonics, a convergent boundary also known as a destructive plate boundary (because of subduction), is an actively deforming region where two (or more) tectonic plates or fragments of lithosphere move toward one another and collide. - a continental margin that coincides with a plate boundary |
Generated by
Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
Passive Margins
|
- a continental margin that is not a plate boundary |
|
Ocean Water Composition
|
- 3.5% dissolved salt - sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium - chemical weathering of rocks: anions, chloride, sulfate |
|
Ocean Currents
|
An ocean current is a continuous, directed movement of ocean water generated by the forces acting upon the water, such as the wind, Coriolis force, temperature and salinity differences and tides caused by the gravitational pull of the Moon and the Sun. |
|
Coriolis Effect
|
In physics, the Coriolis effect is an apparent deflection of moving objects when they are viewed from a rotating reference frame. |
Generated by
Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
Vertical Oceanic Currents
|
Tides pushing up from gravity |
|
Tides
|
Tides are the rise and fall of sea levels caused by the combined effects of the rotation of the Earth and the gravitational forces exerted by the Moon and the Sun. |
|
Waves
|
When waves travel into areas of shallow water, they begin to be affected by the ocean bottom. |
|
Why waves break at land?
|
They don't have anymore place to move around freely |
Generated by
Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
Wave Refraction
|
- the bending of waves as they approach a shore so that their crests make no more than a five degree angle with the shoreline |
|
Longshore Currents
|
Longshore drift, sometimes known as drifting, longshore current, LSD (not common as it typically refers to a drug) or littoral drift is the movement of sediments, most often sand, along a coast parallel to its shoreline. - a current that runs parallel to the beach |
|
Rip Currents
|
A rip current is a strong channel of water flowing away from the shoreline, typically through the surf line, and can occur on any shore that has breaking waves. - a strong localized seaward flow of water perpendicular to a beach |
|
Beaches
|
A beach is a geological landform along the shoreline of a body of water. |
Generated by
Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
Barrier Islands
|
Barrier islands, a coastal landform and a type of barrier system, are relatively narrow strip of sand that parallel the mainland coast. |
|
Wetlands
|
A wetland is an area of land whose soil is saturated with moisture either permanently or seasonally. |
|
Estuaries
|
An estuary is a semi-enclosed coastal body of water with one or more rivers or streams flowing into it, and with a free connection to the open sea. |
|
Fjords
|
Geologically, a fjord ( or ) is a long, narrow inlet with steep sides, created in a valley carved by glacial activity. |
Generated by
Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
Reefs
|
In nautical terminology, a reef is a rock, sandbar, or other feature lying beneath the surface of the water (six fathoms or less at low water). |
|
Costal Variability
|
- plate tectonic setting - relative sea-level changes - sediment supply and climate |
|
Coastal Problems
|
- contemporary sea level changes - hurricanes and coastal floods - beach destruction - pollution and the destruction of organic coasts |
Generated by
Koofers.com
Koofers.com
List View: Terms & Definitions
© Copyright 2012 , Koofers, Inc. All rights reserved.
The information provided on this site is protected by U.S. and International copyright law, and other applicable intellectual property laws, including laws covering data access and data compilations. This information is provided exclusively for the personal and academic use of students, instructors and other university personnel. Use of this information for any commercial purpose, or by any commercial entity, is expressly prohibited. This information may not, under any circumstances, be copied, modified, reused, or incorporated into any derivative works or compilations, without the prior written approval of Koofers, Inc.