Exam 4 - Flashcards

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individualism

placing one's own goals above those of the group

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collectivism

placing group goals above individual goals

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impression formation

the process of forming an opinion about another person

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attribution

the process of assigning causes to events and behaviors

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stereotype

set of beliefs about members of a particular group

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assimilation

the process of assuming that a person possesses all the characteristics of a category or stereotype

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self-fulfilling prophecy

phenomenon whereby our expectations elicit behaviors in others that confirm those expectations

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self-disclosure

an individual's decision to share personal information

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fundamental attribution error

• the tendency to attribute behaviors to internal causes
  
• may be committed more frequently by perceivers than by actors
• when we attribute things its based on individual drives, not context or environment 

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self-serving bias

the tendency to make internal attributions when we are successful and external attributions when we fail

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just-world belief

the belief that bad things happen to bad people and good things happen to good people

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attitudes

evaluative judgments about objects, people, and thoughts that include affective, knowledge, and behavioral components

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Likert scales

questionnaire that requires individuals to indicate their degree of agreement or disagreement with a set of statements

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cognitive dissonance

aversive state produced when an individual has two incompatible thoughts or cognitions simultaneously 

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attraction

the extent to which we like or dislike other people

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friendship

form of interpersonal attraction that is governed by an implicit set of rules

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passionate love

transitory form of love that involves strong emotional reactions, sexual desires, and fantasies

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companionate love

long-lasting form of love that involves commitment

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interdependency theory

theory of interpersonal relationships that stresses the costs and rewards involved

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comparison level (CL)

general outcome expected from a particular relationship 

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prosocial behavior

behavior that benefits society or helps others

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altruism

helping behavior performed voluntarily with no anticipation of reward

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bystander effect

the tendency for a group of bystanders to be less likely than an individual to provide assistance to a person in trouble

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aggression

• physical or psychological behavior that is performed with the intent of doing harm

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hostile aggression

aggressive behavior that is performed with the specific intent of harming another person

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instrumental aggression

aggression that causes harm in the process of achieving another goal

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frustration-aggression hypothesis

the hypothesis that aggression is likely to occur when a person is frustrated 

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persuasion

the use of social influence to cause people to change attitudes or behavior

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sleeper effect

occurs when the message and its source become detached; messages rom sources low in expertise, attractiveness, and trustworthiness may increase in effectiveness

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reactance

• the tendency to react in the opposite direction to a persuasive message when compliance might place limits on personal freedom
  
• reverse psychology
• is a motive to protect or restore one's sense of freedom and self-efficacy
• Romeo and Juliet Effect

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obedience

initiating or changing a behavior in response to a direct command of an authority 

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conformity

initiating or changing a behavior in response to indirect social pressures

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risky-shift phenomenon

the finding that groups make riskier decisions than individuals

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group polarization

phenomenon in which group decision making enhances or amplifies the original opinions of the group's members

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compliance

initiating or changing a behavior in response to a request

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foot-in-the-door effect

phenomenon in which a person who has agreed to a small request is more likely to comply with a subsequent larger request

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door-in-the-face technique

people are first presented with an extremely large request, which they likely will refuse, and then they are presented with a more reasonable request that they are more likely to accept

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reciprocity

tactic for increasing compliance that involves doing something for others to create a feeling of obligation on their part 

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social psychology

• study of the causes, types, and consequences of human interaction
  
• the thoughts, feelings, and behaviors of individuals as shaped by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others

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ethnocentrism

belief that one's own country or culture is superior to all other countries and cultures

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social facilitation

an increase in performance that occurs when other people are present

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social loafing

the tendency to exert less effort when working on a group task that does not involve evaluation of individual participants

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coactors

other people who are present and are engaging in the same behaviors as an individual at the same time

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deindividuation

phenomenon in which the presence of a group results in a loss of personal identity and a decrease in responsibility

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brainstorming

free expression of ideas by members of a group to solve a problem

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groupthink

the tendency to make decisions intended primarily to promote the harmony of the group

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prejudice

judging a person on the basis of stereotypes about the group to which the person belongs

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discrimination

behaviors that adversely affect members of a particular group

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personality

a relatively stable pattern of behaving, feeling, and thinking that distinguishes one person from another

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self-report inventory

psychological test in which individuals answer questions about themselves, usually by responding yes or no or true or false

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projective test

psychological test that involves that use of unstructured or ambiguous stimuli in an effort to assess personality

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Barnum effect

the tendency to accept generalized personality descriptions as accurate descriptions of oneself

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trait

a summary term that describes the tendency to behave, feel, and think in ways that are consistent across different situations

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psychic determinism

they psychodynamic assumption that all behaviors result from early childhood experiences, especially conflicts related to sexual instincts

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unconscious

part of the personality that lies outside of awareness yet is believed to be a crucial determinant of behavior

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id

• in psychodynamic theory, the most basic element of the personality; it is the source of the instincts and operates on the pleasure principle
  
• childlike
• desires gratification
• wants all the time and won't take no for an answer

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ego

• in psychodynamic theory, the element of the mind that operates according to the reality principle and serves to satisfy the id and the superego
  
• rational decision maker
• mediator between id and superego

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superego

• in psychodynamic theory, the element of the mind that incorporates parental and societal standards in what is commonly referred to as the conscience as well as the idealistic ego ideal
  
• internalization of parental rules
• says no to id; opposite of id
• conscience

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defense mechanism

psychodynamic term used to describe primarily unconscious methods of reducing anxiety or guilt that results from conflicts among the id, ego, and superego

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oral stage

• the first stage of psychosexual development in which the mouth is focus of pleasure-seeking activity
  
• first year
• sucking, swallowing, biting
• controlled by mom

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fixation

cessation of further development, resulting in behaviors that are characteristic of the stage of development in which the fixation occurred 

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anal stage

• second stage of psychosexual development, during which the focus of pleasure is the anus and conflict often occurs as efforts are made to toilet-train the child
  
• 1-3 years 
• bowel movements
• anal retentive- uptight; very organized 
• anal expulsive- not organized; messy, chaotic

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phallic stage

• the third stage of psychosexual development, in which the genital organs become the focus of pleasure-seeking behavior
  
• 3-4 years
• libido focused on genitals
• oedipal complex in boys
• electra complex in girls

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Oedipal complex

process that occurs during the phallic stage in which a boy wishes to possess his mother sexually and fears retaliation by his father

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Electra complex

process that occurs during the phallic stage in which a girl wishes to possess her father sexually 

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latency stage

• stage of psychosexual development that extends from about age 6 until the onset of puberty and is characterized by a low level of sexual interest
  
• 5 to puberty
• libido is suppressed
• focused on friendship; not active; gender role based on friendship

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genital stage

• stage of psychosexual development that begins at puberty and usually leads to normal adult sexual development
  
• strong sexual interest in others

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social learning theory

theory that learning occurs through watching imitating the behaviors of others

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locus of control

whether the person sees his or her behavior as controlled by external factors (external locus) or internal (internal locus)

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reciprocal determinism

contention that person variables, situation variables, and behavior constantly interact

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self-efficacy

a person's expectancy concerning his or her ability to engage in effective behaviors; such expectancies differ from one behavior to another

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humanistic psychology

• general approach to psychology, associated with Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers, that emphasizes individuals' control of their behavior
  
• personality is a reflection of our conscious goals, desires, and hopes
• Carl Rogers- unconditional positive reward is key to self-actualization and to bridging the gap between the realistic self and the ideal self
• Abraham Maslow- hierarchy of needs

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self-actualizaiton

need to develop one's full potential

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Norman Triplett

• first social psychological experiment
• social facilitation- the presence of other people could enhance or facilitate the performance of a behavior requiring skill

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Stanley Milgram

• obedience to authority
• trying to understand atrocities like the Holocaust

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Hofling Field Experiment

• nurses instructed over phone to inject unknown drug
• not supposed to accept direction from anyone but doctor
• dose of drug was twice the recommended dose
• 21 out of 22 were going to administer the drug
• Rank and Jacobsen conducted similar experiment and results were lower but still existent

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Importance of Norms and Roles

• they provide us with information on general expectations for behaviors.
• Norms are not necessarily laws
• social norms in the U.S. are unclear about how much we should help or how much others want to be helped
• diffusion of responsibility- the bigger the crowd the less likely you are to get help

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Role

• a set of norms that define how people in a given social position should behave
• may enforce us to act in ways contrary to our "character"

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Why does the South have a higher crime rate?

• we don't support violence more than others
• we are more likely to endorse violence as a means of self-protection, as an appropriate response to insult, and as a socialization tool for training children

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What influences aggression?

• frustration/strong emotion- if we're frustrated we're more likely to become aggressive
• alcohol usage- inhibitions are reduced; most crime is influenced by alcohol
• Pain
• Crowding- we get anxious
• temperature- 92 degrees or higher=higher crime rate; if aggression parallels crime
• pornography- violent pornography leads to violence against women

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What do women look for in a parter?

• record of achievement
• leadership
• skill at his job
• earning potential
• sense of humor
• intellectual ability
• attentiveness
• common sense
• athletic ability
• good abstract reasoning

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What do men look for in a partner?

• physical attractiveness
• ability in bed
• warmth and affection
• social skill
• homemaking ability
• dress sense
• sensitivity to other's needs
• good taste
• moral perception
• artistic creativity

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Theories of Attraction

• balance theory- the more things you share the more likely you are to like them; negatives have a larger affect
• reward theory- we like the things that reward us
• physical attractiveness- matching phenomenon(looking for people who are similar in level of attractiveness)
• proximity/propinquity/mere exposure effect- we're more likely to be friends with people we meet; paths have to be intersecting
• mere exposure effect- more about things; we like what we are familiar with
• sociobiology

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Hendrick and Hendrick

• love has different meanings to different people

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eros

passionate love

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ludus

game playing love

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storge

friendship love

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pragma

logical love

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mania

dependent love

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agape

selfless love

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Male's types of love

agape and eros

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Female's types of love

eros and storge

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4 general responses to relationship dissatisfaction

• exit- ending or actively abusing the relationship
• voice- actively attempting to improve conditions
• loyalty- passively waiting for things to improve
• neglect- passively allowing the relationship to deteriorate

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personality psychology

all of the consistent ways in which behavior of one person differs from that of others

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Hippocrates

• earliest model of personality psychology
• believed personality was determined by the proportion of the 4 humors in the human body
• yellow bile: hot tempered
• black bile: depressed
• phlegm: sluggish and apathetic
• blood: courageous, hopeful, and amorous
• biological model

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Sigmund Freud

relates personality to the interplay of conflicting forces within the unconscious of the individual

• id, superego, ego

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psychosexual development

• not purely sexual; more concerned with zones of pleasure
• libido flows through different parts of the body as we develop
• if normal development is blocked or frustrated we become fixed (preoccupied with the pleasure area)

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defense mechanisms

are used by normal people to protect themselves from anxiety

• repression- motivated forgetting of unpleasant events
• denial- refusal to believe accuracy of information
• rationalization- attempt to prove that actions are rational and justifiable
• displacement- take out frustration on a safer target
• regression- to move backwards in maturity 
• projection- the attribution of one's own desirable characteristics to other people 
• reaction formulation- the strong presentation of a certain belief or role in order to mask strong doubts
• sublimation- the transformation of an unacceptable impulse into an admirable behavior

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Carl Jung

• past colleague of Freud
• focused on humanity's search for spiritual meaning
• collective unconscious- cumulative experience of preceding generations
• archetypes- the vague symbolic images that we will inherit as part of the collective unconscious

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hierarchy of needs

• physiological
• safety
• love/belonging
• esteem
• self-actualization

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trait theorists

describe personality in terms of enduring behavioral tendencies

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The Big Five

traits that can describe most of the variation in human personality

• neuroticism- self- defeating, anxious, doesn't cope well with stress (opposite is emotional stability; makes everything negative
• extraversion- talkative, expressive, outgoing; introvert is the opposite 
• agreeableness- trusting, tolerant, compassionate; people you just get along with
• conscientiousness- competence, self discipline; works hard and gets the job done; best predictor of workplace success (NEO-PIR)
• openness to experience- intellectual, creative, seek new experiences; sensation seeking

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individualism	placing one's own goals above those of the group
collectivism	placing group goals above individual goals
impression formation	the process of forming an opinion about another person
attribution	the process of assigning causes to events and behaviors

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stereotype	set of beliefs about members of a particular group
assimilation	the process of assuming that a person possesses all the characteristics of a category or stereotype
self-fulfilling prophecy	phenomenon whereby our expectations elicit behaviors in others that confirm those expectations
self-disclosure	an individual's decision to share personal information

Generated by Koofers.com

fundamental attribution error	the tendency to attribute behaviors to internal causes may be committed more frequently by perceivers than by actors when we attribute things its based on individual drives, not context or environment
self-serving bias	the tendency to make internal attributions when we are successful and external attributions when we fail
just-world belief	the belief that bad things happen to bad people and good things happen to good people
attitudes	evaluative judgments about objects, people, and thoughts that include affective, knowledge, and behavioral components

Generated by Koofers.com

Likert scales	questionnaire that requires individuals to indicate their degree of agreement or disagreement with a set of statements
cognitive dissonance	aversive state produced when an individual has two incompatible thoughts or cognitions simultaneously
attraction	the extent to which we like or dislike other people
friendship	form of interpersonal attraction that is governed by an implicit set of rules

Generated by Koofers.com

passionate love	transitory form of love that involves strong emotional reactions, sexual desires, and fantasies
companionate love	long-lasting form of love that involves commitment
interdependency theory	theory of interpersonal relationships that stresses the costs and rewards involved
comparison level (CL)	general outcome expected from a particular relationship

Generated by Koofers.com

prosocial behavior	behavior that benefits society or helps others
altruism	helping behavior performed voluntarily with no anticipation of reward
bystander effect	the tendency for a group of bystanders to be less likely than an individual to provide assistance to a person in trouble
aggression	physical or psychological behavior that is performed with the intent of doing harm

Generated by Koofers.com

hostile aggression	aggressive behavior that is performed with the specific intent of harming another person
instrumental aggression	aggression that causes harm in the process of achieving another goal
frustration-aggression hypothesis	the hypothesis that aggression is likely to occur when a person is frustrated
persuasion	the use of social influence to cause people to change attitudes or behavior

Generated by Koofers.com

sleeper effect	occurs when the message and its source become detached; messages rom sources low in expertise, attractiveness, and trustworthiness may increase in effectiveness
reactance	the tendency to react in the opposite direction to a persuasive message when compliance might place limits on personal freedom reverse psychology is a motive to protect or restore one's sense of freedom and self-efficacy Romeo and Juliet Effect
obedience	initiating or changing a behavior in response to a direct command of an authority
conformity	initiating or changing a behavior in response to indirect social pressures

Generated by Koofers.com

risky-shift phenomenon	the finding that groups make riskier decisions than individuals
group polarization	phenomenon in which group decision making enhances or amplifies the original opinions of the group's members
compliance	initiating or changing a behavior in response to a request
foot-in-the-door effect	phenomenon in which a person who has agreed to a small request is more likely to comply with a subsequent larger request

Generated by Koofers.com

door-in-the-face technique	people are first presented with an extremely large request, which they likely will refuse, and then they are presented with a more reasonable request that they are more likely to accept
reciprocity	tactic for increasing compliance that involves doing something for others to create a feeling of obligation on their part
social psychology	study of the causes, types, and consequences of human interaction the thoughts, feelings, and behaviors of individuals as shaped by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others
ethnocentrism	belief that one's own country or culture is superior to all other countries and cultures

Generated by Koofers.com

social facilitation	an increase in performance that occurs when other people are present
social loafing	the tendency to exert less effort when working on a group task that does not involve evaluation of individual participants
coactors	other people who are present and are engaging in the same behaviors as an individual at the same time
deindividuation	phenomenon in which the presence of a group results in a loss of personal identity and a decrease in responsibility

Generated by Koofers.com

brainstorming	free expression of ideas by members of a group to solve a problem
groupthink	the tendency to make decisions intended primarily to promote the harmony of the group
prejudice	judging a person on the basis of stereotypes about the group to which the person belongs
discrimination	behaviors that adversely affect members of a particular group

Generated by Koofers.com

personality	a relatively stable pattern of behaving, feeling, and thinking that distinguishes one person from another
self-report inventory	psychological test in which individuals answer questions about themselves, usually by responding yes or no or true or false
projective test	psychological test that involves that use of unstructured or ambiguous stimuli in an effort to assess personality
Barnum effect	the tendency to accept generalized personality descriptions as accurate descriptions of oneself

Generated by Koofers.com

trait	a summary term that describes the tendency to behave, feel, and think in ways that are consistent across different situations
psychic determinism	they psychodynamic assumption that all behaviors result from early childhood experiences, especially conflicts related to sexual instincts
unconscious	part of the personality that lies outside of awareness yet is believed to be a crucial determinant of behavior
id	in psychodynamic theory, the most basic element of the personality; it is the source of the instincts and operates on the pleasure principle childlike desires gratification wants all the time and won't take no for an answer

Generated by Koofers.com

ego	in psychodynamic theory, the element of the mind that operates according to the reality principle and serves to satisfy the id and the superego rational decision maker mediator between id and superego
superego	in psychodynamic theory, the element of the mind that incorporates parental and societal standards in what is commonly referred to as the conscience as well as the idealistic ego ideal internalization of parental rules says no to id; opposite of id conscience
defense mechanism	psychodynamic term used to describe primarily unconscious methods of reducing anxiety or guilt that results from conflicts among the id, ego, and superego
oral stage	the first stage of psychosexual development in which the mouth is focus of pleasure-seeking activity first year sucking, swallowing, biting controlled by mom

Generated by Koofers.com

fixation	cessation of further development, resulting in behaviors that are characteristic of the stage of development in which the fixation occurred
anal stage	second stage of psychosexual development, during which the focus of pleasure is the anus and conflict often occurs as efforts are made to toilet-train the child 1-3 years  bowel movements anal retentive- uptight; very organized  anal expulsive- not organized; messy, chaotic
phallic stage	the third stage of psychosexual development, in which the genital organs become the focus of pleasure-seeking behavior 3-4 years libido focused on genitals oedipal complex in boys electra complex in girls
Oedipal complex	process that occurs during the phallic stage in which a boy wishes to possess his mother sexually and fears retaliation by his father

Generated by Koofers.com

Electra complex	process that occurs during the phallic stage in which a girl wishes to possess her father sexually
latency stage	stage of psychosexual development that extends from about age 6 until the onset of puberty and is characterized by a low level of sexual interest 5 to puberty libido is suppressed focused on friendship; not active; gender role based on friendship
genital stage	stage of psychosexual development that begins at puberty and usually leads to normal adult sexual development strong sexual interest in others
social learning theory	theory that learning occurs through watching imitating the behaviors of others

Generated by Koofers.com

locus of control	whether the person sees his or her behavior as controlled by external factors (external locus) or internal (internal locus)
reciprocal determinism	contention that person variables, situation variables, and behavior constantly interact
self-efficacy	a person's expectancy concerning his or her ability to engage in effective behaviors; such expectancies differ from one behavior to another
humanistic psychology	general approach to psychology, associated with Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers, that emphasizes individuals' control of their behavior personality is a reflection of our conscious goals, desires, and hopes Carl Rogers- unconditional positive reward is key to self-actualization and to bridging the gap between the realistic self and the ideal self Abraham Maslow- hierarchy of needs

Generated by Koofers.com

self-actualizaiton	need to develop one's full potential
Norman Triplett	first social psychological experiment social facilitation- the presence of other people could enhance or facilitate the performance of a behavior requiring skill
Stanley Milgram	obedience to authority trying to understand atrocities like the Holocaust
Hofling Field Experiment	nurses instructed over phone to inject unknown drug not supposed to accept direction from anyone but doctor dose of drug was twice the recommended dose 21 out of 22 were going to administer the drug Rank and Jacobsen conducted similar experiment and results were lower but still existent

Generated by Koofers.com

Importance of Norms and Roles	they provide us with information on general expectations for behaviors. Norms are not necessarily laws social norms in the U.S. are unclear about how much we should help or how much others want to be helped diffusion of responsibility- the bigger the crowd the less likely you are to get help
Role	a set of norms that define how people in a given social position should behave may enforce us to act in ways contrary to our "character"
Why does the South have a higher crime rate?	we don't support violence more than others we are more likely to endorse violence as a means of self-protection, as an appropriate response to insult, and as a socialization tool for training children
What influences aggression?	frustration/strong emotion- if we're frustrated we're more likely to become aggressive alcohol usage- inhibitions are reduced; most crime is influenced by alcohol Pain Crowding- we get anxious temperature- 92 degrees or higher=higher crime rate; if aggression parallels crime pornography- violent pornography leads to violence against women

Generated by Koofers.com

What do women look for in a parter?	record of achievement leadership skill at his job earning potential sense of humor intellectual ability attentiveness common sense athletic ability good abstract reasoning
What do men look for in a partner?	physical attractiveness ability in bed warmth and affection social skill homemaking ability dress sense sensitivity to other's needs good taste moral perception artistic creativity
Theories of Attraction	balance theory- the more things you share the more likely you are to like them; negatives have a larger affect reward theory- we like the things that reward us physical attractiveness- matching phenomenon(looking for people who are similar in level of attractiveness) proximity/propinquity/mere exposure effect- we're more likely to be friends with people we meet; paths have to be intersecting mere exposure effect- more about things; we like what we are familiar with sociobiology
Hendrick and Hendrick	love has different meanings to different people

Generated by Koofers.com

eros	passionate love
ludus	game playing love
storge	friendship love
pragma	logical love

Generated by Koofers.com

mania	dependent love
agape	selfless love
Male's types of love	agape and eros
Female's types of love	eros and storge

Generated by Koofers.com

4 general responses to relationship dissatisfaction	exit- ending or actively abusing the relationship voice- actively attempting to improve conditions loyalty- passively waiting for things to improve neglect- passively allowing the relationship to deteriorate
personality psychology	all of the consistent ways in which behavior of one person differs from that of others
Hippocrates	earliest model of personality psychology believed personality was determined by the proportion of the 4 humors in the human body yellow bile: hot tempered black bile: depressed phlegm: sluggish and apathetic blood: courageous, hopeful, and amorous biological model
Sigmund Freud	relates personality to the interplay of conflicting forces within the unconscious of the individual id, superego, ego

Generated by Koofers.com

psychosexual development	not purely sexual; more concerned with zones of pleasure libido flows through different parts of the body as we develop if normal development is blocked or frustrated we become fixed (preoccupied with the pleasure area)
defense mechanisms	are used by normal people to protect themselves from anxiety repression- motivated forgetting of unpleasant events denial- refusal to believe accuracy of information rationalization- attempt to prove that actions are rational and justifiable displacement- take out frustration on a safer target regression- to move backwards in maturity  projection- the attribution of one's own desirable characteristics to other people  reaction formulation- the strong presentation of a certain belief or role in order to mask strong doubts sublimation- the transformation of an unacceptable impulse into an admirable behavior
Carl Jung	past colleague of Freud focused on humanity's search for spiritual meaning collective unconscious- cumulative experience of preceding generations archetypes- the vague symbolic images that we will inherit as part of the collective unconscious
hierarchy of needs	physiological safety love/belonging esteem self-actualization

Generated by Koofers.com

trait theorists

describe personality in terms of enduring behavioral tendencies

The Big Five

traits that can describe most of the variation in human personality neuroticism- self- defeating, anxious, doesn't cope well with stress (opposite is emotional stability; makes everything negative extraversion- talkative, expressive, outgoing; introvert is the opposite  agreeableness- trusting, tolerant, compassionate; people you just get along with conscientiousness- competence, self discipline; works hard and gets the job done; best predictor of workplace success (NEO-PIR) openness to experience- intellectual, creative, seek new experiences; sensation seeking

Generated by Koofers.com

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