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FINAL EXAM - Flashcards
Flashcard Deck Information
| Class: | PSYC 1010 - Introductory Psychology |
| Subject: | Psychology |
| University: | University of Virginia |
| Term: | Fall 2009 |
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Psychology
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the science of mind and behavior |
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Dualism
(+Descartes)
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the idea that the world is composed of 2 distinct categories of substance; the mind is the product of the soul mental substance (the soul) physical substance (the body) Descartes: the soul controls the body through an interface with the pineal gland in the brain |
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Monism
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the belief that the world can be explained by one category of substance; the mind is a product of the brain Dualism - the mind is NOT a product of the brain |
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Materialism - Hobbes
(a type of monism)
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nothing exists except for matter and energy all human thought and behavior can be explained in terms of physical processes in the body (the brain) mind is a part of nature |
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Empiricism vs. Nativism
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EMP: all human thought and knowledge are acquired from sensory experience (John Locke, David Hume, John Stuart Mill) NAT: the idea that certain elementary ideas are innate to the human mind and do not need to be learned (Plato, Kant) Nature vs. Nurture |
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Phrenology
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- failed attempt to localize cognitive brain functions (Gall) - discredited as a science of the mind, but there were two seeds of truth: 1. Modularity of mental functions 2. LOCALIZATION of function |
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Broca's Area & Wernicke's Aphasia
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Left hemisphere of the brain Broca's area: located in left frontal lobe; key for LANGUAGE/SPEECH PRODUCTION Wernicke's Aphasia: located in the left temporal lobe; key for LANGUAGE COMPREHENSION significant evidence for localization |
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Natural Selection
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Those attributes contributing to survival and reproduction are most likely to be passed on to succeeding generations |
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Introspectionism
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-study of conscious mental events by "looking within" -observation and recording of one's own thoughts and experiences -Problems: you can't question or check what some else claims to experience 1. Variability - one's impressions are different from another's 2. Verification - no public access to introspections 3. Reliance on consciousness: interesting mental events are unconscious |
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Scientific Method
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EXPLAINS through an integrated set of principles and PREDICTS observable behaviors or events Must have a hypothesis; a theory is only as good as it is falsifiable Goals of Scientific Psychology: Describe, Predict, & Explain |
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Correlation
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CORRELATION DOES NOT SHOW CAUSATION: 3rd variable measure of the degree to which one variable is related to another Correlation coefficient: # = strength of relationship; + or - = direction (positive or negative) |
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Experimental Study
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Determines cause and effect by manipulating variables and observing their effect on a behavior manipulate the DV: measured factor, affected by IV with the IV: controlled factor, causes effect on DV |
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Random Assignment
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every subject in the study should have AN EQUAL CHANCE OF BEING PLACE IN ANY OF THE CONDITIONS helps to avoid false results and to make sure that each group is equivalent |
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Observer and Subject Expectancy
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OBS: unconsciously treats groups different; biased results produced from the observer's expectation that subjects would behave in a certain way SUB: subject has theories about the experiment which influence how he/she performs (Placebo effect: treatment alters a person's behavior through the power of suggestion) Double Blind: obs & sub are blind about conditions |
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Random Sampling
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every item/person has an equal probability of being selected for the sample (no selection bias) not to be confused with random assignment |
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Central Nervous System (CNS)
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comprised of the BRAIN and SPINAL CORD Spinal cord: bundle of nerves (tracts); Ascending tract carries SENSORY info to the brain Descending tract carries MOTOR control info from the brain to the muscles |
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Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
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the set of nerves that connects the CNS to the sensory organs, muscles, and glands 2 basic tasks of nerves: transmit info to be processed to brain (sensory) & brain sends signals to different body parts (motor) Sympathetic (stress/fear/arousal) Parasympathetic (regeneration/revitalization/calm) |
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The Hindbrain
(Brain stem, Pons, Medulla, Cerebellum)
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Brain stem: responsible for automatic survival f(x)s (controlling breathing & the heartbeat); - Pons: relays info from cerebellum to rest of brain - Medulla: coordinates heart rate, circulation, & respiration - Reticular formation: in the medulla; regulates sleep, wakefulness, and arousal levels - Cerebellum: skilled motor control, posture, RAPID, WELL-TIMED MOVEMENTS (kicking a soccer into a goal) |
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The Midbrain
(Tectum & Tegmentum)
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Tectum: orients an organism in the environment Tegmentum: involved in movement and arousal |
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The Forebrain
(Subcortical Structures) - 1
Thalamus, Basal Ganglia, Amygdala)
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Thalamus: sensory relay station; receives input from most of the sensory modalities (vision, audition, NOT SMELL) then reroutes them to their appropriate brain locations. Basal Ganglia: on each side of the thalamus; INTENTIONAL MOVEMENTS (Operation); affected by Parkinson's Disease Amygdala: processes and regulates emotional states |
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The Forebrain
(Subcortical Structures) - 2
(Hippocampus, Hypothalamus,
Cerebral Cortex)
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Hypothalamus: regulates many basic bodily functions - hunger, thirst, sleep, & body temperature Hippocampus: key for building long-term memoriesst, sleep, body temperature, etc. Cerebral Cortex: outermost layer; largest part of the brain (80%); 1/3 visible, 2/3 hidden in folds and fissures |
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Luxury --> Necessity
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Luxury - Voluntary Action, complex judgment, symbolic thought - Emotion, motivation, simple judgment - Sensory information - Repetitive Movement - Breathing Necessity Goes from hindbrain (necessity) to cerebral cortex (luxury) |
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Specialization of Brain Function
(Four Parts)
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Frontal Lobe (front): SPEAKING, IMAGINING, & THINKING (primary motor area); planning, judgment, impulse control Parietal Lobe (back/top): BODILY SENSATIONS (primary somatosensory area) Temporal Lobe (bottom): HEARING, LANGUAGE COMPREHENSION Occipital Lobe (back): VISION |
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Homonculus
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What you would look like if the size of your body parts was determined by how much space they're given in your motor and sensory cortices HUGE hands (fingers), lips, and head |
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Contralateral Organization
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most of the sensory and motor info that travels to and from the brain goes into the opposite side of the body Right Hemisphere/visual field controls left side of the body - Face Recognition - Perceiving others' emotions Left Hemisphere/visual field controls right side of the body - Language |
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Brain Imaging
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Spatial Resolution: how close in physical proximity one can get to the target brain area Temporal Resolution: how close in time you can get to when the neurons fire |
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Brain Imaging Types
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EEG: electrical signals associated w/ neural firing in brain areas; excellent temperal, poor spatial, non-invasive CT Scan: XRay, info about brain structure; ok spatial, no temp MRI: excellent spatial for tumors, no temporal, non-invasive fMRI: excellent spatial, fair temporal, non-invasive; based on changes in oxygen consumption & blood flow which are byproducts of neural activity |
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Structure of a Neuron
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Dendrite: receives messages and conducts impulses toward the cell body to be processed Cell body: contains the cell's nucleus, processes info Axon: messages are sent to other neurons (dendrites) - Myelin Sheath: glial cells, electrical insulator, increases the speed of the neural signal; white matter; destroyed by MS |
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Action Potential
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brief electrical charge that travels down an axon and influences the activity of the receiving neuron cause neurotransmitters to be released from the axon terminal which travel across the synapse & bind with receptor sites of the receiving neuron Resting potential - action potential - refractory period |
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Neurotransmitters
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chemical messengers that cross synaptic gaps btw neurons effect on receiving neuron can either be: excitatory: making the receiving neuron more likely to fire or inhibitory: making the receiving neuron less likely to fire |
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Drugs & Neurotransmitters
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Agonist: increases the effect of a neurotransmitter -Prozac, Amphetamine, cocaine, Nicotine Antagonist: interferes with the effect of a neurotransmitter -Caffeine Psychoactive drugs alter synaptic communication: - morphine mimics endorphins - antipsychotic drugs to treat schizophrenia block dopamine |
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Sensation
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the process by which sense organs gather information about the environment and transmit it to the brain your sensing of an environmental stimulus Vision -- Photons Hearing -- Sound waves Smell -- airborne chemicals |
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Stages of Sensation
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1. Stimulation - Energy contains info about the world - Accessory structure modifies energy 2. Transduction - Receptor transforms the environment stimulus into a signal 3. Transmission - Sensory nerve transfers the coded activity to the CNS 4. Representation in the brain - Thalamus processes and relays the neural response - Cortex receives input and produces the sensation |
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Transduction
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- transforming environmental stimuli into neural signals Taste: taste buds Smell: olfactory receptor neurons Hearing: hair cells in the cochlea, basilar membrane Touch: touch receptors Vision: rods (gray, low light) & cones (detect color, detail) |
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Taste
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Five Main Taste Sensations: - Bitter - Salty - Sweet - Umami (savory sensation) - Sour Each taste bud contains 50-150 taste receptor cells that send information to the Gustatory sensory neurons Only 2/3 of the 2,000-10,000 taste buds are on the tongue |
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Smell
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Chemical receptors in the nose Airborne chemicals travel throughout the air and are inhaled through the nasal cavity, which is directly connected to the forebrain Smell (olfaction) is crucial for taste (gustation) Women have a better sense of smell than men do |
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Sound
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Frequency = pitch (low freq, low pitched sound) Amplitude = loudness (high amp, loud sound) Complexity = timbre (Simple, pure sound) Outer ear: funnels sound directly towards the inner structures Middle ear: 3 ossicles (hammer, anvil, stirrup) AMPLIFY sound Inner ear: where transduction occurs (hair cells in the cochlea) |
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Touch
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Four main sensations of touch: Pressure, Pain, Warmth, Cold Touch receptors are the sensory neurons/transducers A-Delta Fibers: sharp, initial pain (myelinated), thick & faster C Fibers: dull, throbbing pain (un-myelinated), thin & slower Gate Control Theory: spinal cord contains a neurological gate that blocks pain signals or lets them to pass onto the brain - release of brain's endorphins can close the gate & ease pain |
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Phantom Limb
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the experience of pain does not always originate from pain receptors the brain does not need sensory input from a body part in order to generate pain |
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Vision
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photoreceptors transform light energy into a neural impulse Retina: sensory receptors (rods & cones) - Cones: color, most concentrated in the FOVEA, ~6 mil - Rods: dim light, everywhere EXCEPT in the fovea, ~120 mil No photoreceptors in the blind spot - Our visual system "fills in" the blind spot |
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Light Energy
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2 aspects of light -Visual system interprets differences in wavelength as color ** Short wavelength: high freq/high pitch (purplish colors) ** Long wavelength: low freq/low pitch (reddish colors) -Visual system interprets differences in amplitude as intensity ** Great amplitude: bright colors, loud sounds ** Small amplitude: dull colors, soft sounds |
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Color Vision
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All colors are created by 3 primary colors: Red, Green, & Blue - All colored lights mixed together = creation white light ** Additive Color Mixing Trichromatic Theory of Color Vision: - 3 Types of Cones: Red (L), Green (M), Blue (S) Monochromat: 0-1 f(x)ing cone (extremely rare) Dichromat: 2 f(x)ing cones (green or red cone malfunction) |
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Opponent Process
Theory of Color Vision
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Afterimages: viewing colored stimuli for an extended period of time, the afterimage is a complementary color - red/green opponent cells - blue/yellow opponent cells - black/white opponent cells Color vision is based both on the Opponent Process Theory and the Trichomatic Theory |
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Perception
(+What/Where Pathways)
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Process of using prior knowledge and experience to interpret and make sense of sensations Ventral (What) Stream: occipital to temporal, identification Dorsal (Where) Stream: occipital to parietal, locate & track |
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Top Down/Bottom Up Processing
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Bottom Up: flow of info from the world into perceptual system Top Down: pre-existing knowledge on eventual perception Perception relies on prior knowledge! |
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Perceptual Organization
&
Gestalt Psychology
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Gestalt laws for perception involve the org. of sensory input - Proximity: group nearby figures together, seen as a unit - Similarity: group figures that are similar, seen as a unit - Closure: fill in gaps to create a complete, whole object - Continuity: objects that are connected by a smooth curve tend to be seen as unit - Connectedness/Common Movement: objects moving at the same speed and in the same direction are seen as a unit - Simplicity: the visual system selects the simplest interpretation of an obj |
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Perceived Size/Distance
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to perceive the size of an object, we must also perceive its distance Depth cues: - Monocular: appear in the image in either the right or left eye - Binocular: involve comparing the left & right eye images (binocular disparity) |
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Monocular Depth Cues
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- Relative Size: if two objects are assumed to be the same size, but one appears bigger, then it must be closer - Linear Perspective: apparent convergence of parallel lines suggests distance - Texture Gradient: texture elements become smaller & more densely packed together as they recede into the distance - Relative Height: proximity to the horizon signals greater distance |
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The Stroop Effect
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Stroop Effect: some abilities which once required attention can become automatic through practice (ex. Color Naming) - Word processing is faster than color naming - Words interfere with color naming - Colors do not interfere with word reading - Interference is greater than facilitation in color naming |
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Attention
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- Some aspects of our perception are under our conscious, attentive control - Two Primary Aspects of Attention: 1. Selectivity: only aware of a subset of stimuli (selective attention) ** Treisman's Feature Detection: detecting features is relatively automatic & integrating multiple features together & identifying the object is more attention demanding -- Parallel analysis of simple features, serial of multiple features 2. Capacity Limitations: limited ability to handle different tasks or stimuli at once |
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Left Visual Neglect
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Inability of difficulty to attend to the left side of visual space or of an object. Caused by lesion to the right parietal lobe |
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Dichotic Listening
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Selective attention; you attend to one message, but what happens to the other message? You cannot comprehend both -- for the unattended message, change in pitch or disappearance of message IS noticed, but the change in language or content is NOT You will not consciously remember things that are not attended to --> attention amplifies what you are attending to and filters out much of what you are not attending to |
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Basic Memory Model
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--> SENSORY INPUT --> [Sensory Memory] --> ATTENTION --> [Working/Short-Term Memory] -- REHEARSAL [Long Term Memory] |
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Sensory Memory Store
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Function: holds info long enough to be processed for basic physical characteristics Large Capacity Decays rapidly: - 0.3 seconds for visual information (Iconic Memory) - 2 seconds fo auditory information (Echoic Memory) Attention is needed to transfer info to Working Memory... |
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Working Memory Store
(aka Short-Term Memory)
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Function: conscious processing of information, lasts 2 sec. unless refreshed/rehearsed - where information is actively worked on -Phonological Loop: remembering #s, rehearsal of auditory information (7 +/- 2 chunks of info/temp/rehearsal) --> -[Central Executive]: Attn controller that selects & regulates the flow of info within the Working Memory (chunking) |
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Long-Term Memory
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Encoding: process that controls movement from short to long term memory Retrieval: process that controls flow of info from long to short term memory Unlimited capacity; may be stored permanently Emotion increases the likelihood of encoding LTM |
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Flashbulb Memories
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- Happen during very high emotions - The resulting memory is not complete - The resulting memory can grossly inaccurate - The resulting memory is not immune to forgetting - Different from everyday memories in terms of how confidently individuals believe in them Ex. 9/11, Challenger explosion, etc. |
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Amnesia
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Normal Working Memory Cannot form new conscious, long-term memories Anterograde: inability to transfer new memories into LTM Retrograde: inability to retrieve info acquired before a specific date Procedural learning spared: can learn things normally, but they will never remember the act of learning/doing the task |
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Retrieval Failures
(Forgetting)
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Sheer repetition does not necessarily lead to good memory Retrieval failure leads to forgetting - sometimes info is encoded into the LTM, but we just cannot retrieve it - Interference: caused by one memory competing with or replacing another memory (what's occurring within the time) ** Retroactive: NEW memory interferes w memory of OLD info ** Proactive: OLD memory interferes with memory of NEW info |
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Retrieval Cues
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Retrieval cue: a clue, prompt, or hint that can help memory retrieval - Context Dependent Memory: improved ability to remember if tested in the same environment as the initial learning environment (decoding specificity) - Tip-of-the-Tongue State: temporary failure to retrieve info that one is sure exists in LTM & is on the verge of returning |
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Seven Sins of Memory
(Transience, Absentmindedness,
Blocking, Memory Misattribution)
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Transience: forgetting what occurs with the passage of time Absentmindedness: lapse in attn resulting in memory failure Blocking: failure to retrieve info that is available in memory even though you're trying to produce it (tip of the tongue) Memory Misattribution: assigning a recollection or an idea to the wrong source |
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Seven Sins of Memory
(Suggestibility, Bias, Persistence)
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Suggestibility: tendency to incorporate misleading info from external sources into personal recollections - Children are highly vulnerable Bias: distorting influences of present knowledge, beliefs, and, feelings on recollection of previous experiences Persistence: intrusive recollection of events we wish we could forget |
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Universals of Language
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- Referential: refers to and describes things and events in the world - Interpersonal: it allows for a conversation with another - Structured: it has grammar, or a set of rules. - Dynamic: New words and phrases are constantly appearing *Phoneme: smallest distinctive sound unit (Bat: 3 phonemes) vary from language to language (~40 in English) *Morpheme: smallest meaningful piece of language, usually a word or part of a word |
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The Segmentation Problem
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Phonemes are often hard to extract from the sound stream Need to know or guess the word to extract the phonemes Need the meaning of the sentence to understand the words Top Down: we can't know how the phonemes relate to the words until we know what is being said |
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Common Causes of Errors
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-Functional Fixedness: tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions (constrained bias) -Confirmation bias: seeking evidence to confirm a hypothesis -Conjunction Fallacy: 2 things more like to occur together than apart -Representativeness Heuristic: comparing something to a prototype of that object (we don't attend to base-rate info) -Availability: over-influenced by events that easily come mind -Gambler's Fallacy: a sequence of events makes future events more/less likely |
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Framing Effects
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Prospect Theory: People tend to be RISK-SEEKING with losses and RISK AVERSE with gains Losing $1000 produces a painful response that is much greater than the feeling of gaining $1000 |
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Motivation
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an internal condition, which can change over time, that orients an individual to a specific set of goals (i.e. hunger, thirst) Homeostasis: the tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state - optimum pt trying to be maintained Drives are caused by an upset in homeostasis, inducing behavior to correct the imbalance |
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Drives
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Regulatory Drives: primary biological drives that result in death if ignored (ie. hunger, thirst, oxygen, sleep, body temp) Non-regulatory drives: drives to satisfy needs that aren't life-threatening (ie. sex), but may contribute to emotional and/or biological well-being, such as attachment Hypothalamus: regulates many drive systems - hunger, thirst, sleep, body temperature (maintains homeostasis) |
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Hunger Drive
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Hypothalamus: Lateral Area: stimulates hunger; destruction reduces hunger Ventromedial Area: depresses hunger; destruction = obesity - food is converted into fat rather than energy molecules causing the organism to eat much more than normal |
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Sex Drive
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Sex is a physiologically based motive, like hunger, but, unlike hunger, the lack of sex does not cause death Men generally have a higher level of sexual motivation than women |
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Sleep Drive
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3 independent states of the brain: 1) Awake Brain; 2) REM (dreaming) sleep: active brain, paralyzed body; fast, random sawtooth waves; 3) Non-REM sleep: active brain, moveable body -Beta Waves - awake -Alpha Waves - relaxed & drowsy, not very attentive -Theta Waves - Stage 1 -K Complex/Sleep Spindles: Stage 2 -Delta Waves: Stages 3 & 4 (biggest, slowest brain waves) |
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Sleep Drive
(Stages of Sleep)
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- Non-REM Stage 1: brief transition stage when first falling asleep Stage 2 - 4: successively deeper stages of sleep characterized by an increasing percentage of irregular, high-amp Deltas Stage 4: 80-100min of sleep time, then returns to 3 & 2 - REM Sleep emerges -- DREAMS - 4-5 Sleep cycles in one night, progressively less time spent in Stage 4, more in REM Stimulation of Medial Pre-optic Area causes sleep |
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Impact Bias
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the tendency to overestimate the duration of the emotional consequences of an event -Underestimate the power of our emotional setpoint -Good at predicting valence& intensity of emotional reactions -Bad at predicting how LONG these emot reactions will last |
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Common Sense Theory of Emotion
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Common sense suggests that the perception of a stimulus elicits the emotion which then causes bodily arousal Sight of Shark --> Fear --> Pounding heart (arousal) Problem: we sometimes react physically before (or simultaneously as) we're aware of what we're feeling |
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James-Lange Theory of Emotion
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perception of a stimulus causes bodily arousal which leads to emotion Sight of Shark --> Pounding heart (arousal) --> Fear Events lead to physical change Emotions are the result of awareness of those changes |
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Schacter-Singer Two Factor Theory
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Interaction of Inference and Arousal - Inference influences the KIND of emotion - Degree of arousal influences the INTENSITY Sight of Shark - Inference (danger) influences the kind of emotion (fear) - Pounding heart influences the intensity of the emotion |
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Emotion & the Brain
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Amygdala is the brain's shortcut (the fast pathway) for emotions fast --> Quick Interpreter (Amygdala) --> Stimulus --> Perception | Emotion slow --> Slow Interpreter (Front Lobe) --> |
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Ekman's Facial Feedback Theory
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Each basic emotion is associated with a unique facial expression - Sensory feedback from the expression contributes to the emotional feeling - Having a certain expression on your face will cause you to feel that emotion Facial expression is innate |
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Honest Display Theory
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Emotions are cues that facilitate our ability to interact with others - if you know how someone is feeling, you can facilitate a behavior |
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Gut-Feeling Theory
(Somatic-Marker Theory)
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Decisions are based on our gut feelings -emotions help us make decisions -use imagined emotional responses for guidance |
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Intelligence as a Single Trait
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Spearman's view (minority view) Each of us possesses a certain amount of g, or general intelligence, that influences our ability on all intellectual tasks |
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Intelligence as a Few Basic Abilities
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Cattell's view -Crystallized intelligence: amount of info that is KNOWN (factual knowledge about the world, word meanings, arithmetic, etc) (peaks ~50 years) ** Mental ability derived from previous experience -Fluid Intelligence: ability to process info - ability to think on the spot by drawing inferences & understanding relations btw concepts not encountered before (peaks ~20-25 years) **Doesn't depend on previous specific experience |
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Multiple Intelligences
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Howard Gardner, 1980s 1. Linguistic 5. Bodily-Kinesthetic 2. Logical-Mathematical 6. Intrapersonal (self understanding) 3. Spatial 7. Interpersonal (social skills) 4. Musical Savant Syndrome: a person, otherwise limited in mental ability, has an amazing specific skill |
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Binet's Notion of Mental Age
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- Chronological age that most typically corresponds to a given level of performance - Child does as well as average 8 yr old: Mental age of 8 Stanford-Binet Scale: - IQ = (Mental Age/Chronological Age) x 100 |
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Wechsler Tests
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WAIS: Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale - Follows in the footsteps of Cattell (Crystallized & Fluid) Most widely used intelligence tests today Two subtests: verbal & performance |
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Heritability Coefficient
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a number that estimates the degree to which difference in a characteristic from one person to another are caused by genetic differences 0: no variance due to genetic, 1: all variance due to genetics |
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Genetics and Intelligence
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Genes Matter Women have an advantage with linguistic tasks, men with spatial tasks Essentially no difference between ethnic groups Flynn Effect |
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Expertise
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There does not seem to be any exceptional innate memory talent that applies to different kinds of materials Instead, exceptional memory seems mainly to be caused by LOTS of practice and is limited to the particular type of material that was involved in the practice (ie. chess) |
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Classical Conditioning
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Ivan Pavlov Neutral Stimulus (bell): does not normally elicit a response or reflex action by itself Unconditioned Stimulus (food): always elicits reflex action Unconditioned Response (saliva): natural response to UCS Conditioned Stimulus (bell): originally neutral, UCS + Neutral Conditioned Response: original UCR now associate w/ CS |
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Classical Conditioning Properties
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Extinction: repeatedly presenting CS w/o the UCS diminishes the CR Spontaneous Recovery: after passage of time the partial return of a CR that had been extinguished Generalization: CR triggered by things that resemble CS Habituation: repeatedly presenting the UCS with the CS until the CS no longer elicits a response |
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Biological Preparedness
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Propensity to learn some kinds of associations over others - We seem biologically prepared to associate light and sound to shock as opposed to sweet water Conditioned taste aversion: Tequila at party - avoid tequila, not the party |
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Operant Conditioning
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B.F. Skinner/Edward Thorndike process by which a behavior becomes associated with its consequences Behavior predicts --> Reinforcer creates --> Reinforcement Law of Effect: reinforced behaviors will be repeated; punished behaviors will not be |
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Operant Conditioning Properties
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Shaping: reward behaviors that increasingly resemble desired behavior; successive approximations Reinforcement Schedules: - Fixed Interval: paid every hr, regardless amt of work done - Variable Interval: Radio contest - tickets every hour or so - Fixed Ratio: Every 10 shirts made = pay day - Variable Ratio: on average, paid every 10 shirts - may be 8 this time, 12 next time |
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Reinforcement & Punishment
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- Positive Reinforcement: presenting something (money) - Negative Reinforcement: taking away something (chores) - Positive Punishment: presenting something (shock) - Negative Punishment: taking away something (TV) |
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Observational Learning
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Alfred Bandura Bobo doll: watching others affects learning |
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Brain Development
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Develops from back to front: - Brain stem and spinal cord are nearly fully myelinated and organized at birth - Midbrain and cerebellum begin myelinating just after birth - The cerebral cortex matures last (frontal lobes done in late teens) Plasticity = wiring up (synaptogenesis) |
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Infant Reflexes
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1. Moro reflex: throwing the arms out, arching the back and bringing the arms together as if to hold onto something 2. Grasping reflex 3. Babinski reflex: fanning/curling toes when foot is stroked 4. Rooting reflex: tendency to open mouth and search for nipple when cheek is touched |
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Piaget's Theory
of
Cognitive Development
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Sensorimotor (0-2yr): info gained through sense/motor actions; perception & manipulation, no reasoning; object permanence around 6 months Pre-operational (2-7yr): represent world w/ language, imagery, & symbolic thought; egocentrism, no conservation Concrete Operational (7-12yr): less egocentric, conservation, inability to reason abstractly or hypothetically Formal Operation (12-adult): acquires logical reasoning, can think deeply about concrete events & can reason abstractly |
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Language Development
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Babbling Stage: begins at 3-4 months One word Stage: from about age 1 to 2 Two word Stage: from about age 2 |
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Noam Chomsky's Explanation
of
Language
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Innate language learning mechanism Just as we become attuned to our language's phonemic structure, an analogous mechanism makes us attuned to our language's grammar; genetically predisposed for grammar Ex. The Wug Test - from listening to language, children infer grammatical rules Overgeneralization: inappropriately adding endings (ie. -ed) |
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Critical Periods for Language
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an optimal period shortly after birth when an organism's exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development New language learning gets harder with age Grammar seems to have a critical period |
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Attachment
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Konrad Lorenz: imprinting (the process by which certain animals form attachments during critical periods) in ducks Harry Harlow: rhesus monkeys seek CONTACT COMFORT more than milk, especially when frightened John Bowlby: Young mammals have competing needs for safety & exploration - will explore with a secure home base |
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Attachment Styles
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Mary Ainsworth, Strange situation 1. Secure: explores when mom is present; upset when she's absent; seeks comfort at reunions (70%) - Express emotions appropriately/close relationships 2. Anxious-Resistant: constant anxiety; clings to mom & does not explore much (10%) - inhibit expressing emotions/don't seek comfort from others 3. Avoidant: avoids mom/acts coldly to her throughout (20%) |
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Persuasion
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**Consistency-Based: people's desire to behave consistently - Foot in the door (agree to small, then agree to large) **Reciprocity-Based: tendency to return favors - Door in the face (outlandish request, then smaller request) - That's Not All: (Cupcake for $.75 & 2 cookies for free!) **Script/Norm-Based - Pique technique: frame request unusually to increase compliance by piquing interest. Combats mindless behavior |
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False Consensus
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Tendency to see one's own choices and opinions as more common than they are - It makes us feel better to think that we are a part of the majority (self-esteem maintenance) - Accessibility: the reasons for our construal of the event more readily come to mind |
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Stereotypes
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Explicit: what we consciously think about a group Implicit: unconscious mental associations guiding our judgments and actions without our conscious awareness - Devine's Automaticity Theory: ** stereotypes about groups of people are so prevalent in our culture that we hold them to some extent ** automatically activated whenever we come into contact with someone from that group ** need controlled processes to counteract the stereotypes |
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Factors Affecting Obedience
(Milgram Studies)
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Original Study: 65% gave highest shock Different Building: 48% Teacher with learner: 39% Put hand on shock: 29% Orders given by phone: 22% Ordinary man orders: 20% Another teacher rebels: 9% Teacher chooses shock level: 2% gave highest shock |
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Personality
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an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and interacting with the world |
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Psychodynamic Approach (Freud)
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Provides an approach to both therapy and personality Emphasizes unconscious motivation -- main causes of behavior lie buried in the unconscious mind -Id: strives to satisfy basic sexual&aggressive drives, pleasure principle -- screaming, spoiled child -Superego: internalization of morals, guilt, opposes the id -Ego: mediator between id & superego, reality principle - trying to bring as much pleasure as possible given reality |
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Freud's Theory of Mind
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- Conscious: in awareness now, rational, goal-directed thoughts - Superego: thoughts, desires, information; easily consciously accessible - Unconscious: a reservoir of unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories; the ugly contents of the unconscious are kept this way by repression - The individual is always torn between desire & conscience - We use defense mechanisms to cope |
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Defense Mechanisms
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1. Regression: suppresses anxiety-producing thoughts from consciousness (ex. regressing to your 5 yr old self) 2. Displacement: shifts unacceptable impulses toward a less threatening object or person (kicking the water cooler) 3. Sublimation: unacceptable urges are channeled into socially acceptable activities (working out when angry) 4. Projection: project your own unacceptable urges onto others (you insist everyone else is selfish) 5. Rationalization: fabricate justifications to make it acceptable (I drin |
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Trait Theories Approach
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-Describe basic personality characteristics that are relatively stable over time/across situations -The Big 5: Openness - creative, intellectual (DC) Conscientiousness - health-protective (NM) Extravert - physical health (ND) Agreeable - longevity, community involvement (ND) Neurotic - criminality, morbidity (WV) -MMPI: Minnesota Multi-phasic Personality Inventory: most widely researched & clinically used to identify emot. disorder |
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Social Cognitive Approach
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-Focus on differences in learned beliefs or thoughts that predispose people to react in particular ways -Personality is formed by interaction of COGNITION & ENVIRO -Reciprocal Determinism: interacting influences between personality & environmental factors Locus of Control - External: chance or outside forces determines one's fate - Internal: one control's one's own fate |
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Birth Order & Personality
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First Born: more responsible, ambitious, organized, disciplined, temperamental, anxious about status, assertive, dominant Later Borns: more easy-going, trusting, accommodating, adventurous, prone to fantasy, untraditional, social, affectionate, excitement seeking, self-conscious |
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Different Theory Goals
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- Trait theories do not explain personality, but DESCRIBE its central elements - Psychodynamic & Social Cognitive theory seek to explain it: ** Psychodynamic: focus is on unconscious motives & defenses against anxiety ** Social Cognition: focus is on particular beliefs, like LOC |
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General Adaptation Syndrome
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Phase 1: Alarm reaction (mobilize resources) - body reacts to stress Phase 2: Resistance (cope with stressor) - balance is temporarily re-attained Phase 3: Exhaustion (reserves depleted) - leads to illness or death |
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How to Reduce Stress
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Control: perceived control reduces stress (ex. being able to push a button to stop an annoying noise) Predictability: being able to predict the stressor reduces stress (ex. living under a flight path) |
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Type A Personality
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Type A: Need for activity, seeks high pressure environments, has trouble relaxing - twice as likely to develop coronary heart disease than B ** vulnerable to feeling stressed and its effects ** prolonged stress increases blood pressure & cholesterol Type B: no need for activity, seeks low pressure environment, takes time to unwind |
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Abnormal Behavior
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Mental Disorder according to the DSM-IV - Distress and impairment of functioning - Involuntary - Internal Source |
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Perspectives on Mental Disorders
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1. Medical Perspective: mental disorders as PHYSICAL DISEASES; multiple causes: brain abnormalities, heredity, etc 2. Biopsychosocial Perspective: mental disorders caused by an interaction of biological, social, and psychological factors -ex. Albert's phobia of rats: Bio (heritability), Psych (trauma), Social (no support) 3. Anxiety Disorders 4. Mood Disorders |
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Anxiety Disorders (GAD)
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Generalized Anxiety Disorder: - Excessive uncontrollable worry about life events - Strong, persistent anxiety - Persists for 6 months or more - Interferes with normal functioning - 4% of population, females to males: 2:1 |
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Anxiety Disorders (Panic)
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Panic Disorder - Abrupt experience of intense fear or discomfort - Accompanying physical reactions to the fear - Worry about another attack - Symptoms persist for at least one month - 3.5% of population, 2/3 are female |
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Anxiety Disorders (Specific Phobias)
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Specific Phobias - Extreme and irrational fear of specific object/situation that is out of proportion to the danger posed by the object - Interferes with one's ability to function - Bio-vulnerability (hereditary prep) & past exp cause them 1. Blood, injury, injection 2. Situation: elevator, bridge, tunnel, closed spaces 3. Natural Environment: heights, darkness, water, storms 4. Animals and insects 5. Other phobias: death, choking, illness, etc |
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Anxiety Disorders (OCD)
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OCD - Obsessions: recurrent, persistent thoughts, images, or urges that intrude into consciousness. Recognizably irrational - Compulsions: repetitive actions performed to suppress thoughts and provide relief - 1-3% of population |
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Mood Disorders (Depression)
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Major Depression - Extremely depressed mood lasting at least 2 weeks - Symptoms: sad, depressed mood; loss of interest or pleasure in all activities; appetite and weight change; difficulties sleeping; loss of energy, great fatigue; feelings of worthlessness, negative self-concept; difficulties concentrating; recurrent thoughts of death or suicide - Return to normal in 6-8 months - Dysthymia: less severe, longer lasting depression (2 years) - Beck: Thought disorder (min good exp/exaggerate bad exp) |
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Mood Disorders (Bipolar)
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- Mood alternates from severe depression to extreme mania - Manics experience: elevated mood, increased activity, less need for sleep, grandiose ideas, extreme distractibility - Average onset is age 18. - Between 0.6 & 1.1% of the population will have bipolar disorder |
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Causes of Mental Disorders
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Biological: heritability Situational: stress, losses (spouse, job, health, income) Cognitive: thought patterns (pessimistic views of themselves, the world, & the future Etiology: multiple influences (bipolar = genetic, depression = biological) Neurotransmitters: mood disorders = low serotonin levels |
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Psychotic Disorder
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person loses contact with reality experiences irrational ideas and distorted perceptions |
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Dissociative Disorders
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complete repression of anxiety-provoking materials from consciousness that can cause sudden unawareness of identity reactions to traumatic events: memory loss is the only symptom |
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Dissociative Identity
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- Two or more distinct personalities manifested by the same person at different times - Very rare - ~15 identities - Female to male - 9:1 Causes - Frequent histories of horrible child abuse - Highly suggestible - Mechanism to escape from impact trauma |
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Schizophrenia vs. Psychosis
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Psychosis: broad term referring to hallucinations and/or delusions Schizophrenia: a type of psychosis with disturbed thought, language, behavior |
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Schizophrenia
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I. Positive Symptoms: (active manifestations of abnormal behavior) hallucinations & delusions -false beliefs/perception II. Negative Symptoms: (absence/insufficiency of normal behavior) withdrawal, apathy, absence of normal behavior III. Disorganized thoughts/speech: overinclusion, tangentiality |
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DSM-IV: Schizophrenia
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During a one month period, 2 (or more) of these symptoms: - Delusions - Hallucinations - Disorganized speech - Grossly disorganized/catatonic behavior - Negative symptoms ~1% of population, males (18-25) & females equal (26-45) |
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Schizophrenia & Genetics
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General Population: 2% Siblings: 8% Children: 13% Fraternal twins: 18% Children of 2 schizophrenics: 45% Identical Twin: 47% - Drug therapy works best; talk therapy does not work - Brain structure abnormalities |
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Schizophrenia & Environment
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Adopted children in homes of non-schizophrenics study Diathesis-Stress Model: having a predisposition to a particular disorder and having its likelihood of appearing increase due to environmental factors - Biological disposition combined with psychosocial stressors lead to Sz Caused by excess dopamine |
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Rates of Mental Disorders
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50% of people between 15-54 have had at least one episode of some kind of disorder Highest frequency between ages 25-34 Most common disorders in U.S. Population: - Major Depressive Disorder: 17% - Social Phobia: 13% |
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Modern Therapy
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Psychotherapy: treatment involves a structured interaction between a client and a professional Bio-medical therapy: treatment acts directly on the CNS |
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Types of Psychotherapy:
Psychodynamic
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Psychodynamic: - Mental disorders result from inner conflict, childhood exp. - Basic Assumption: understanding & gaining insight about the conflict will resolve the mental disorder -Methods: Free association (report everything that comes to mind; Dream analysis(latent content); Mistakes: Freudian slips -Goals: Analyst makes inferences about patient's unconscious conflict Once patient experiences them consciously, they can modify and resolve them |
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Types of Psychotherapy:
Humanistic
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- Assumes that mental disorders are best treated by increasing awareness of motivation & needs - Inner feelings & desires are seen as positive/life promoting - Client-centered Therapy (Carl Rogers): therapist provides unconditional positive regard: create a positive atmosphere in which the patient feels comfortable saying whatever it is that comes to mind, whether those things be good or bad - Goal: resolve mental disorders by helping the client grow in self-awareness & self-acceptance ** Make and take resp |
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Types of Psychotherapy:
Cognitive
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- Assume that our thinking influences our feelings - Goal is to identify problematic styles of thinking (ie. self-defeating thoughts) and to replace them with beneficial styles ** Attribution retraining (self-serving bias) - Only focused on those cognitions that are viewed as being maladaptive; change self-defeating attributions to self-serving attributions - Maladaptive: overgeneralization (negative event viewed as neverending defeat); discount the positives (successes "don't count"); labeling & indentifyi |
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Types of Psychotherapy:
Cognitive (cont'd)
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Cognitive Techniques for Different Disorders: - Specific Phobias: examine likelihood/probability of outcome - GAD: what is the utility of assuming the worst - Social Phobia: test thoughts - negative evaluation from others - Panic & Agoraphobia: look at past attacks to consider probability |
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Type of Psychotherapy:
Behavior Therapy
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- Uninterested in self-awareness (cognitive) - Uninterested in underlying causes - Focus on and change observable behaviors via conditioning and other behaviorist methods - Methods: Exposure Treatments ** Flooding: force patient to confront their feared object ** Systematic Desensitization: treat an anxiety by pairing a relaxed state with a gradually increasing anxiety provoking stimulus |
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Psychotherapy Conclusions
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- People receiving treatment do better than those who do not - Some types of therapy are more effective than others for specific problems: ** Cognitive-Behavioral = best for anxiety ** Humanistic = best for self-esteem problems ** Psychodynamic = best for achievement problems |
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Types of Psychotherapy:
Biological
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Understood as physical illness Attempts to solve the mental disorder by altering bodily processes - History: Drilling holes in head, blood letting Today: ECT (Electric Convulsive Therapy) & Drug Therapy |
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Electric Convulsive Shock Therapy
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- Originated from observing that epileptics & people who suffer fever-induced convulsions are often NOT depressed - Goal of ECT is to induce a seizure similar to that experienced by epileptics; w/o the seizure, ECT is ineffective - Used primarily in cases of severe, unrelenting depression - Involves frontal lobes - 60% of people who don't respond to other treatments get relief from ECT |
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Drug Therapy
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Psychopharmacology: generally safe & effective, most popular Anti-depressants: Many work to increase the availability in the brain of certain neurotransmitters - Prozac makes Serotonin more available by inhibiting reuptake (agonist drug) Anti-anxieties: Beta-blockers, such as Inderal, are very effective |
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Schizophrenic Treatment
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Typical antipsychotic medication (Thorazine) reduces relapse rates &motor side effects(shaking, problem controlling mvmt) Problems: - Drugs tend to relieve positive, but not negative symptoms - Compliance: many patients fail to take drug - High rates of relapse Rosenhan Study |
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How We Believe
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Cartesian: - Statement: Understand --> Assess --> Believe/Disbelieve - If you forget your assessment, you will neither dis/believe Spinoza: - Statement: Understand&Believe --> Assess --> Un/Believe - If you forget your assessment, you will believe |
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Why We Continue to Believe
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Selective Exposure: - Opportunity - Attention - Disconfirmation We believe what we are told Beliefs are easier to acquire than to lose |
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Theme #1:
Expectations influence outcomes
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Ex. Self-help tapes: suggestibility Ex. Classroom where teacher is told girls are smarter than boys -- will help boys mores: Self-fulfilling Prophecy |
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Theme #2:
Theories drive perception, language, and memory
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Perception = top down theory testing Sensation = bottom up data assembly Change Blindness Problems extracting meaning |
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Theme #3:
The mind is not unitary
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Different parts of the brain have different functions Principle of Contralateralization |
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Theme #4:
Situations are powerful, and we often don't notice
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Fundamental Attribution Error Stanley Milgram Obedience studies |
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Theme #5:
Humans have a hard time figuring out what they will do, how they will do it, and why they did it
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Impact bias of relationships |
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Theme #6:
Our identities are products of both biological factors and social environments
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Ex. Adopted children and schizophrenics study |
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