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Final Exam - Flashcards
Flashcard Deck Information
| Class: | PSYCH 100 - General Psychology |
| Subject: | Psychology |
| University: | Ohio State University - Main Campus |
| Term: | Spring 2010 |
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|
Habituation
|
responding less strongly to something over time |
|
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
|
initially neutral stimulus |
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Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
|
Stimulus that elicits an automatic response (elicit --> to call forth or bring out) |
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Unconditioned Response (UCR)
|
Auto response to non-neutral stimulus |
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Conditioned Response (CR)
|
Response associated with non-neutral stimulus that is elicited by a neutral stimulus through conditioning |
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conditioning
|
strengthening or weakening of an association between a stimulus and a response |
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Aversive Conditioning
|
Classic conditioning to an unconditioned response |
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Acquisition
|
Learning phase when a conditioned response is established |
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Stimulus Generalization
|
Process where conditioned stimuli are similar (not identical) to original conditioned stimulus |
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Generalization Gradient
|
The more similar to the original CS the new CS is, the stronger the CR will be |
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Fetishism
|
Sexual attraction, or erotic interest and satisfaction to something |
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Pseudoconditioning
|
an apparent conditioned response that actually turns out to be unconditioned to a conditioned stimulus |
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Law of Effect
|
principle asserting if stimulus followed by behavior results in reward... the stimulus is more likely to show the behavior in the future |
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Insight
|
grasping the nature of a problem |
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Reinforcement
|
Outcome or consequence of a behavior that strengthens probability of the behavior |
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Positive Reinforcement
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positive outcome/consequence of a behavior ex: give something pleasant |
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Negative Reinforcement
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Removal of a negative outcome or consequence of a behavior ex: take away something unpleasant |
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Punishment
|
outcome or consequence of a behavior that weakens the probability of the behavior |
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Extinction
|
Gradual reduction/eventual elimination of conditioned response after it is presented repeatedly without the unconditioned stimulus |
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Partial Reinforcement
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Only occasional reinforcement of a behavior, resulting in slower extinction than if the behavior had been reinforced continually |
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Schedule of Reinforcement
|
Patter of reinforcing a behavior |
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Fixed Ratio (FR) Schedule
|
Pattern in which we provide reinforcement following a regular number of responses |
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Variable Ratio (VR) Schedule
|
Patter where we provide reinforcement for producing the response following an average time interval, with the interval varying randomly |
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Premack Principle -- "Grandma's Rule"
|
a less frequently performed behavior can be increased in frequency by reinforcing it with a more frequent behavior |
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Secondary Reinforcers
|
neutral objects that people can trade in for primary reinforcers themselves ex: Money --> buy a primary |
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Primary Reinforcers
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Items or outcomes that are naturally pleasurable ex: food, sex |
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Stimulus-Organism-Response
|
Organism interprets the stimulus before making a response (depends on learning histories, how we've been trained to respond to situations) |
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Cognitive Conditioning
|
our interpretation of the situation affects conditioning (conditioning is more than an automatic, mindless process) |
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Latent Learning
|
learning that's not directly observable or difference between competence (what we know) and performance (showing what we know) |
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Cognitive Maps
|
Mental representations of how a physical space is organized |
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Observational Learning
|
learning by watching others |
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External Validity
|
general applicability to the real world (in scientific experiment) |
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Internal Validity
|
Extent to which they permit cause-and-effect inferences (in scientific experiment) |
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Mirror Neurons
|
Cells in the prefrontal cortex that is activated by specific motions when an animal performs AND observes that action |
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Insight Learning
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Just getting the answer to the problem |
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Conditioned Taste Aversion
|
Classical conditioning can lead us to develop avoidance reactions to the taste of food |
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Panic Disorder
|
anxiety disorder characterized by recurring severe panic attacks |
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Agoraphobia
|
fear of being in a place or situation where escape is difficult or embarrasing |
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Bipolar Disorder
|
periods of excitability or mania alternating with periods of depression |
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Conduct Disorder
|
disorder of childhood that involved chronic behavior problems ex: drug use, criminal activity |
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Phobia
|
intense fear of objects, places, or situations that is way out of proportion to its actual threat |
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Demonic Model
|
odd behavior, hearing voices, or talking to oneself was attributed to evil spirits infesting the body |
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Chlorpromazine
|
medication from France, modestly effective treatment for symptoms of schizophrenia & other disorders marked by a loss of contact with reality |
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Codependency
|
tendency to behave in ways that negatively impact one's relationships and quality of life (alcoholism & other substance abuse) |
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Koro
|
Malaysia, Asians, China, India; men believe penis & testicles are disappearing; women believe breasts are disappearing |
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Amok
|
Malaysia, Philippines, some African countries; intense sadness, uncontrolled behavior & unprovoked attacks on people/animals |
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Psychopathic Personality
|
condition marked by dishonesty, manipulativeness, and absence of guilt and empathy |
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Kunlangeta
|
person who lies, cheats, steals, unfaithful to women, doesn't listen to elders |
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Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)
|
diagnostic system criteria for mental disorders |
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Asperger's Syndrome
|
high functioning form of Autism |
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Sleep paralysis
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when you're unable to move either just after falling asleep or right before waking up |
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Biological Clock
|
Nucleus in the hypothalamus that's responsible for controlling our levels of alertness |
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Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)
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in hypothalamus, make us feel drowsy at different times of the day/night |
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Melatonin
|
hormone that triggers sleepiness; levels increase after dark |
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Rapid eye movements (REM)
|
darting of eyes underneath the closed eyelids during sleep |
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Hypnagogic imagery
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sudden muscle contractions or jerks of limbs that occur in stage 1, light sleep; felt like you were startled or falling |
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Sleep spindles
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stage 2 sleep, brain waves slow down even more; bursts of electrical activity; 12-14 cycles a second |
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Delta waves
|
20%-50% chance to happen in stage 3 of sleep, 50% chance or more in stage 4 of sleep; as slow as 1-2 cycles/sec |
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non-REM (NREM) sleep
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stages 1-4 of sleep cycle, during which eye movements don't occur & dreaming is less frequent and vivid |
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REM sleep
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stage of sleep where brain is most active, body is inactive, and during which vivid dreaming most often occur |
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REM rebound
|
amount & intensity of REM sleep increases |
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REM behavior disorder
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if we aren't paralyzed by REM, we'd act out our dreams |
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Lucid dreaming
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experience of becoming aware that one is dreaming |
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Insomnia
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difficulty falling and staying asleep |
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Narcolepsy
|
disorder characterized by rapid and (often) unexpected onset of sleep; due to having fewer brain cells that produce orexin |
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Sleep apnea
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disorder caused by a blockage of the airway during sleep, resulting in daytime fatigue |
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Orexin
|
triggering sudden attacks of sleepiness |
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Night terrors
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sudden waking episodes characterized by screaming, perspiring, & confusion followed by a return to a deep sleep |
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Manifest content
|
details of the dream itself |
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Latent content
|
true, hiden meaning of the dream |
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Activation-synthesis theory
|
theory that dreams reflect inputs from brain activation, which the forebrain then attempts to weave into a story |
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Out-of-body experience (OBE)
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consciousness leaving our body; changes in perceptions of the self |
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astral projection
|
phenomenon in which some claim to be able to create OBE's at will & mentally visit other places |
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Deja Vu
|
feeling of reliving an experience that's NEW |
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Dual processing theory
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deja vu arises when we input from separate neural pathways that process sensory information is slightly out of sync |
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Mystical experience
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feelings of unity or oneness with the world |
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meditation
|
practices that train attention and awareness |
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concentrative meditation
|
focus attention on a single thing |
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awareness meditation
|
attention flows freely and examines whatever comes to mind |
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hypnosis
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techniques that provides people with suggestions for alterations in their perceptions, thoughts, feelings, and behaviors |
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past life regression therapy
|
therapeutic approach that hypnotizes and age-regresses patients back to a previous life to identify the source of a present day problem |
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Socio-cognitive theory
|
hypnosis based on people's attitudes, beliefs, and expectations |
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Dissociation theory
|
approach to explaining hypnosis based on a seperation between personality functions that are normally well integrated |
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dissociation
|
division of consciousness in which attention, effort, and planning are done without awareness |
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psychoactive drugs
|
chemicals (similar to those found naturally in our brains) that alter consciousness by changing chemical processes in neurons |
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sedative
|
drug that exerts calming effect |
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hypnotic
|
drug that exerts sleep-inducing effect |
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tolerance
|
reduction in the effect of a drug as result of repeated use, requiring users to consume greater quantities to achieve the same effect (similar to habituation) |
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withdrawal
|
unpleasant effects of reducing or stopping consumption of a drug |
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adjustive value
|
a drug's ability to enhance positive emotional reactions & minimize negative emotional reactions |
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delirium
|
disorientation, confusion, visual hallucinations and memory problems |
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stimulants
|
increase activity in the central nervous system |
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narcotics
|
drugs that relieve pain and induce sleep |
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hallucinogenic
|
causing dramatic alterations of perception, mood, and thought |
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Somatoform disorders
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physical symptoms suggest medical illness, but are actually psychological |
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panic attacks
|
brief episodes of extreme fear ex: sweating, dizziness, light-headedness, feelings of death/going crazy |
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Generalized Anxiety Disorder
|
continual feelings of worry, anxiety, tension, and irritability across many areas of life functioning |
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Specific Phobias
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intense fear of objects, places, or situations that are greatly out of proportion to actual threat |
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Social Phobia
|
fear of public appearances |
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Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PSTD)
|
emotional disturbance after experiencing or witnessing a severely stressful event |
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Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)
|
repeated & lengthy immersion in obsessions, compulsions, or both |
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Obsession
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ideas, thoughts, or impulses that are unwanted/(maybe even inappropriate) |
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Compulsions
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behaviors or mental acts to reduce or prevent stress |
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Catastrophically
|
feature of anxious thinking that's done when a person predicts terrible events |
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Major Depressive Episode
|
lingering depressed mood or diminished interest in pleasurable activities symptoms that include weight loss and sleep difficulties |
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Manic Episode
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inflated self-esteem, decreased need for sleep, more talkative, increased activity level or agitation, excessive involvement |
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Dysthymic Disorder
|
Low-level depression of at least two years duration; mild chronic depression |
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Cyclothymia
|
Cycles of up and down moods; increases risk of developing bipolar disorder |
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Postpartum Depression
|
depressive episode that occurs within a month after childbirth as many as 15% of women develop |
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Seasonal Affective Disorder
|
seasonal pattern, most commonly beginning in fall or winter and improving in spring. must be 2 consecutive years |
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Cognitive Model of Depression
|
theory that depression is caused by negative beliefs and expectations |
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Cognitive Triad
|
three components of depressed thinking: negative views of oneself, one's experiences, and future |
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Negative Schema's
|
habitual thought patterns that originate in early experiences of loss, failure and rejection |
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Cognitive Distortions
|
skewed ways of thinking |
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Selective Abstraction
|
negative conclusion based on only an isolated aspect of a situation |
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Depressive Realism
|
mildly depressed people actually have a more accurate view of circumstances |
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Illusory Control
|
non-depressed people are more likely to believe they controlled a light bulb when it came on; depressed were more realistic |
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Kindling
|
people become sensitized to stressful events, then it takes only small amount of stress to bring on the blues |
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Bipolar Disorder
|
condition marked by a history of at least one manic episode |
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Hypomanic Episode
|
less intense/disruptive version of a manic episode feelings of inadequacy, sadness, low energy, poor appetite, decreased pleasure & productivity, & hopelessness |
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Bipolar Disorder I
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presence of at least one manic episode |
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Bipolar Disorder II
|
patients must experience at least one episode of major depression & one hypomanic episode |
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Schizophrenia
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severe disorder of thought & emotion associated with loss of contact with reality; split mind or split personality; one personality that's shattered |
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Delusions
|
strongly held, fixed beliefs that have no basis in reality |
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Psychotic Symptoms
|
psychological problems reflecting serious distortions in reality; "delusions" |
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Hallucinations
|
sensory perceptions that occur in the absence of an external stimulus |
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Command Hallucinations
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tell patients what to do |
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Catatonic Symptoms
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motor problems, extreme resistance to simple suggestions, holding the body in bizarre or rigid postures --> fetal position |
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Paranoid Type
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delusions/auditory hallucinations; delusions are persecutory and/or grandiose & organized around a consistent theme; function at higher levels |
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Disorganized Type
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unpredictable giggling; delusions & or hallucinations, not well organized into a single theme, often short lived |
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Catatonic Type
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can harm themselves or others and are immobile or when extremely exited; malnutrition, exhaustion, & self-inflicted injuries |
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Expressed Emotion (EE)
|
criticism over involvement shown by relatives that causes a relapse of schizophrenic patients once back home from hospital |
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Positive Symptoms
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distortions or excesses of normal functions & include hallucinations, delusions, & disorganized speech & behavior |
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Negative Symptoms
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decrease or loss of normal functions; withdrawal/diminished motivations, decreased expression of emotions, brief limited speech |
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Diathesis-Stress Models
|
mental disorders are a joint product of a genetic vulnerability & stressors that trigger it |
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Diathesis
|
genetic vulnerability |
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Schizotypal Personality Disorder
|
not full-blown schizophrenia bc of weaker genetic vulnerability or bc experienced fewer stressors -> intense discomfort in social situations |
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Personality Disorder
|
personality traits, appearing 1st in adolescence, are inflexible, stable, expressed in a wide variety of situations |
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Borderline Personality Disorder
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extreme instability in mood, identity, & impulse control; tense unstable relationships, recurrent suicide attempts... |
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Psychopathic Personality
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superficial charm, dishonesty, manipulativeness, self-centered, & risk-taking |
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Antisocial Personality Disorder (ASPD)
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history of irresponsible and/or illegal actions; violates or disregards rights, lying, stealing... |
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Histrionic Personality Disorder
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analogue of psychopathic personality that is a condition marked by vanity, self-centeredness, attention seeking, dramatic behavior; more common in women |
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Stimulus Hunger
|
bored and seek out excitement |
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Substance Abuse
|
recurrent problems associated with a drug |
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Substance Dependence
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substance (ex: drugs) are taken in larger amounts or over a longer period than intended; persistent desire; social/occupational/recreational activities are given up/reduced |
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Tension-Reduction Hypothesis
|
consume alcohol & other drugs to relieve anxiety |
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Psychotherapy
|
treatment of mental or emotional problems |
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Paraprofessionals
|
person with no professional training who provides mental health services |
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Therapis
|
title that is not legally protected |
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Insight Therapies
|
psychotherapies with the goal of expanding awareness or insight |
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Free Association
|
technique which patients express themselves without censorship of any sort |
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Interpretations
|
explanations of the unconscious bases of a patients dreams, emotions, & behaviors |
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Resistance
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attempt to avoid confrontation and anxiety associated w/ uncovering concealed thoughts, emotions, & impulses |
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Transference
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projecting intense, unrealistic feelings & expectations from the past onto the therapist |
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Work through
|
confront and resolve problems/conflicts & ineffective coping responses in everyday life |
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Individuation
|
integration of opposing aspects of patient's personality into a harmonious "whole," namely, the self |
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Collective Unconscious
|
memory traces we inherit from our ancestors that all people supposedly share |
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Amplification
|
therapists & patients expand on dream associations |
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Prognostic Dreams
|
foretell the future & may warn dreamers of danger |
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Object Relations Therapists
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difficulties with trust, attachment, separations, & identity formation |
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Interpersonal Therapy
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strengthens social skills & targets interpersonal problems, conflicts, & life transitions |
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Humanistic-Existential Psychotherapy
|
therapies that share an emphasis on the development of human potential & belief that human nature is basically positive |
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Phenomenological Approach
|
therapists encounter patients in terms of subjective -(mental act performed entirely within the mind)- phenomena (remarkable development) in the present moment |
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Person-Centered Therapy
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therapy centering on the patients goals & ways of solving problems |
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Unconditional Positive Regard
|
non judgmental acceptance of all feelings the patient expresses |
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Motivational Interviewing
|
patients are ambivalent about changing longstanding behaviors and geared toward clarifying & bringing forth their reasons for changing/not changing their lives |
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Gestalt Therapy
|
therapy that aims to integrate different & sometimes opposing aspects of personality into a unified sense of self |
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Experiential Therapies
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interventions that recognize the importance of awareness, acceptance, & expression of feelings |
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Logotherapy
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therapeutic approach that helps people find meaning in their lives |
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Behavior Therapists
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therapist who focuses on specific problem behaviors, & current variables that maintain problematic thoughts, feelings, & behaviors |
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Behavioral Assessment
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pinpoint environmental causes of the person's problem, establish treatment/goals, & devise therapeutic procedures |
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Functional Analysis
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assuming the patient's problematic behaviors are maintained by reinforcement |
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Systematic Desensitization
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patients are taught to relax as they are gradually exposed to what they fear in a stepwise manner |
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Exposure Therapy
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therapy that confronts patients with what they fear with the goal of reducing the fear |
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Reciprocal Inhibition
|
patients can't experience two conflicting responses simultaneously |
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Counter-conditioning
|
incompatible relaxation response w/ anxiety to condition a new & more adaptive response to anxiety-arousing stimuli |
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Anxiety Hierarchy
|
a "ladder" of situations or scenes that climb from least to most anxiety provoking |
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Dismantling
|
research procedure for examining the effectiveness of isolated components of a larger treatment |
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Implosive Therapy
|
research procedure that borrows concepts form psychodynamic therapy; unconscious repressed memories & conflicts contribute to anxiety |
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Response Prevention
|
technique in which therapists prevent patients from performing their typical avoidance behaviors |
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Participant Modeling
|
technique which the therapist 1st models a problematic situation & then guides the patient through steps to cope with it unassisted |
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Token Economy
|
method where desirable behaviors are rewarded |
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Aversion Therapy
|
treatment that uses punishment to decrease the frequency of undesirable behaviors |
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Cognitive-Behavior Therapy
|
treatment that attempts to replace maladaptive or irrational cognitions w/ more adaptive, rational cognitions |
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Pharmacotherapy
|
use of medications to treat psychological problems |
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Tardive Dyskinesia (TD)
|
- a serious side effect of some anti-psychotic medications like those used to treat schizophrenia & other psychoses - involuntary movements usually of lower face |
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Polypharmacy
|
prescribing many medications at the same time |
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Electro Convulsive Therapy (ECT)
|
patients receive brief electrical pulses to the brain that produce a seizure to treat serious psychological problems |
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Psycho-Surgery
|
brain surgery to treat psychological problems; most radical of all biological treatments |
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Memory
|
The retention of information over time |
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Paradox of memory
|
our memories are surprisingly good/poor in certain situations |
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Suggestive memory techniques
|
procedure that encourage patients to recall memories that may or may not have happened |
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Memory Illusion
|
false but compelling memory |
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Observer Memory
|
memory which we see ourselves as an outside observer would |
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Field Memory
|
seeing the world through your visual field |
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Span
|
how much info the memory system can hold/retain |
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Durations
|
how long the memory system can retain information |
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Sensory Memory
|
brief storage of perceptual information before it is passed to short-term memory |
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Iconic Memory
|
visual sensory memory |
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Echoic Memory
|
auditory sensory memory |
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Short-term Memory
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memory system that retains information for limited durations |
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Eidetic Imagery
|
photographic memory |
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Working Memory
|
memory store for information we/re currently thinking about, attending to, or processing actively |
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Decay
|
fading of information from memory |
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Interference
|
loss of information from memory because of competition from additional incoming information |
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Retroactive Inhibition
|
interference with retention of old information due to acquisition of new information |
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Proactive Inhibition
|
interference with acquisition of new information due to previous learning of information |
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Magic Number
|
span of short-term memory: seven +/- 2 pieces of information |
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Chunking
|
organizing info into groups, allowing us to extend the span of short term memory |
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Rehearsal
|
repeating information to extend the duration of retention in short term memory |
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Maintenance Rehearsal
|
repeating stimuli in their original form to retain them in short term memory |
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Elaborative Rehearsal
|
linking stimuli to each other in a meaningful way to improve retention of information in short term memory |
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Levels of Processing
|
depth of transforming information, which influences how easily we remember it |
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Long-Term Memory
|
sustained (from minutes to years) retention of information stored regarding our facts, experiences, & skills |
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Permastore
|
type of long term memory that appears to be permanent |
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Primacy Effect
|
tendency to remember words at the beginning of a list especially well |
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von Restorff Effect
|
tendency to remember distinctive stimuli better than less distinctive stimuli |
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Serial Position Curve
|
graph depicting the effect of both primacy & recency on people's ability to recall items on a list |
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Semantic Memory
|
our knowledge of facts about the world |
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Episodic Memory
|
recollection of events in our lives |
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Explicit Memory
|
memories we recall intentionally & of which we have conscious awareness |
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Declarative Memory
|
the information recalled by explicit memory |
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Implicit Memory
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memories we don't deliberately remember or reflect on consciously |
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Procedural Memory
|
memory for how to do things, including motor skills & habits |
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Priming
|
our ability to identify a stimulus more easily after we've encountered similar stimuli |
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Encoding
|
process of getting information into our memory banks |
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Next-In-Line Effect
|
being so preoccupied with what you were going to say that you don't remember what the person right before you had said |
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Mnemonic
|
a learning aid, strategy, or device that enhances recall ie: Soh Cah Toa Sine = opp/hyp... |
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Method of Loci
|
relies on imagery of places, locations |
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Keyword Method
|
depends on ability to think of an English word that reminds you of the word you're trying to think of |
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storage
|
process of keeping information in memory |
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Schema
|
organized knowledge structure or mental model that we've stored in memory |
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Retrieval
|
reactivation/reconstruction of experiences from our memory stores |
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Retrieval Cues
|
things/hints that make it easier for us to recall info |
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Recall
|
generating previously remembered info |
|
Recognition
|
selecting previously remembered info from an array of options |
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Koofers.com
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Relearning
|
reacquired knowledge that we'd previously learned but largely forgotten over time |
|
Distributed vs. Massed Practice
|
distributed - studying info in small increments over a large amount of time vs. massed - studying info in large increments over a small amount of time |
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Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon
|
knowing that we know something but we are unable to think/access it |
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Encoding Specificity
|
- remembering something better when conditions under which we learned the info are similar to the conditions under which we encode it - conditions could mean where & when, or if we're sleepy, or our emotions, etc... |
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Koofers.com
Koofers.com
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Context-Dependent Learning
|
superior retrieval of memories when the external context of the original memories matches the retrieval context |
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State-Dependent Learning
|
superior retrieval of memories when the organism is in the same physiological or psychological state as it was during encoding |
|
Retrospective Bias
|
our current psychological state can distort memories of our past |
|
Engram
|
the physical trace of each memory in the brain |
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Koofers.com
Koofers.com
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Long-Term Potentiation
|
gradual strengthening of the connections among neurons from repetitive stimulation |
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Retrograde Amnesia
|
loss of memories from our past |
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Anterograde Amnesia
|
inability to encode new memories from our experiences |
|
Flashbulb Memories
|
emotional memories that are extraordinarily vivid & detailed |
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Koofers.com
Koofers.com
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Phantom Flashbulb Memories
|
idea that many seeming flashbulb memories are false |
|
Source Monitoring
|
ability to identify the origins of a memory |
|
Cryptomnesia
|
failure to recognize that our ideas originated with someone else |
|
Misinformation Effect
|
creation of fictitious memories by providing misleading information about an event after it takes place |
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Koofers.com
|
Simultaneous Lineup
|
witness can make the selection "live" form among six people standing behind glass or from photos |
|
Sequential Lineups
|
witnesses view one person at a time, typically by means of photograph |
|
Discrete Emotion Theory
|
theory that humans experience a small number of distinct emotions |
|
Primary Emotions
|
small number of emotions believed by some theorists to be cross-culturally universal |
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Koofers.com
Koofers.com
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Secondary Emotions
|
combination of primary emotions |
|
Insula
|
region in the limbic system [associated with disgust] |
|
Duchenne Smile
|
genuine emotional expression |
|
Pan Am smile
|
movement of mouth but not eyes |
Generated by
Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
Motivations-Structural Rules
|
deep-seated similarities in communication across most species |
|
Display Rules
|
how & when to express emotions |
|
Unconscious Influences on Emotion
|
factors outside our awareness that can affect our feelings |
|
Mere Exposure Effect
|
repeated exposure to a stimulus makes us more likely to feel favorably toward it |
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Koofers.com
|
Facial Feedback Hypothesis
|
theory that blood vessels in face feed back temperature info in the brain, altering our experience of emotions |
|
Nonverbal Leakage
|
unconscious spillover of emotions into nonverbal behavior |
|
Illustrators
|
gestures that highlight or accentuate speech; forcefully moving out hands |
|
Manipulators
|
gestures where one body part strokes, presses, bites, or otherwise touches another body part; twirl hair, bite fingernails |
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Koofers.com
|
Emblems
|
gestures that convey meanings that are recognized by members of a culture; hand wave, ok sign, head nod |
|
Proxemics
|
study of personal space |
|
Public Distance
|
(12 ft or more): typically used for public speaking, lecturing |
|
Social Distance
|
(4-12) ft): typically used for conversations among strangers & casual acquaintances |
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Koofers.com
|
Personal Distance
|
(1.5-4 feet): typically used for conversations among close friends/romantic partners |
|
Intimate Distance
|
(0-1.5 ft): typically used for kissing, hugging, etc... |
|
Pinocchio Response
|
psychological or behavioral indicator of lying, given away by bodily reactions |
|
Voice Stress Analysis
|
used to detect lies on the basis of findings that people's voices increase in pitch when they lie |
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Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
False Negatives
|
guilty individuals who the test incorrectly labels innocent |
|
Guilty Knowledge Test
|
alternative to the polygraph test that relies on the premise that criminals harbor concealed knowledge about the crime that innocent people don't |
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Motivation
|
psychological drives that propel us |
|
Drive Reduction Theory
|
certain drives that motivate us to act in ways that minimize aversive states ex of drives: hunger, thirst, sexual frustration |
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Koofers.com
|
Homeostasis
|
equilibrium |
|
Yerkes-Dodson Law
|
inverted u-shaped relations between arousal on one hand, and affect and performance on the other |
|
Incentive Theories
|
theories proposing we're often motivated by positive goals |
|
Approach
|
predisposition toward certain stimuli; food or objects of our sexual desire |
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Koofers.com
|
Avoidance
|
disposition away from certain stimuli; rude people or frightening animals |
|
Intrinsic Motivation
|
people are motivated by internal goals |
|
Social Psychology
|
people influence others' behavior, beliefs, & attitudes |
|
Need to Belong Theory
|
need for interpersonal connections; suffer negative psychological & physical consequences when we can't |
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Koofers.com
|
Social Facilitation
|
perform better because other people are around |
|
Social Disruption
|
worsening behavior when people are around |
|
Attribution
|
process of assigning causes to behavior |
|
Fundamental Attribution Error
|
tendency to overestimate the impact of dispositional influences on other people's behavior |
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Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
Social Comparison Theory
|
we seek to evaluate our beliefs, attitudes, & abilities by comparing our reactions with others |
|
Mass Hysteria
|
outbreak of irrational behavior, spread by social contagion |
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Urban Legends
|
false stories repeated so many times that people eventually believe them to be true |
|
Conformity
|
tendency of people to alter their behavior as a result of group pressure |
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Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
Confederates
|
undercover agents of the researcher |
|
Parametric Studies
|
studies where an experimenter systematically manipulates the independent variable to observe its effects on the dependent variable |
|
Autokinetic Effect
|
tiny movements of eye muscles trick your brain into thinking an object is moving against a completely dark background |
|
Deindividuation
|
when people tend to engage in uncharacteristic behavior when they are stripped of their usual identities |
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Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
Group Polarization
|
tendency of group discussion to strengthen the dominant positions held by individual group members |
|
Cults
|
groups of individuals who exhibit intense & unquestioning devotion to a single caue |
|
Inoculation Effect
|
convincing people to change their minds about something by 1st introducing reasons why the perspective might be correct & then debunking it |
|
Obedience
|
adherence to instructions from those of higher authority |
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Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
Prosocial Behavior
|
behavior intended to help others |
|
Bystander Effect
|
bystanders in emergencies typically want to intervene, but often find themselves frozen, seemingly helpless to help |
|
Pluralistic ignoracne
|
Error of assuming that no one in a group perceives things as we do |
|
Diffusion of Responsibility
|
reduction in feelings of personal responsibility when others are around |
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Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
Social Loafing
|
where individuals become less productive in groups |
|
Belief
|
conclusion regarding factual evidence |
|
Attitude
|
belief that includes an emotional component |
|
Self-Monitoring
|
personality trait that assesses the extent to which people's behavior reflects their true feelings & attitudes |
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Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
Maladaptive Gullibility
|
falling for messages delivered by phony authority figures |
|
Implicit Egotism
|
we're more positively disposed toward people, places, things that resemble us |
|
Name-Letter Effect
|
we're more likely to select people whose names contain the first letters of our first or last names |
|
Cognitive Dissonance
|
unpleasant mental experience of tension resulting from two conflicting thoughts or beliefs |
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Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
Cosmetic psychopharmacology
|
the use of medications to produce long-term alterations in personality |
|
Sensation seeking
|
the tendency to seek out new and exciting stimuli |
|
Characteristic adaptations
|
their behavioral manifestations; Judaism + dislike of Germans vs. Nazism + dislike of Jews |
|
Basic tendencies
|
underlying personality traits; intense loyalty & devotion to social causes |
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Koofers.com
|
Individualism Collectivism
|
people from largely individualistic cultures (US) tend to focus on themselves and their personal goals; people from largely collectivist cultures (Asia) tend to focus on their relations with others |
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Anthropomorphizing
|
unintentionally imposing their implicit personality theories on chimpanzees |
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Implicit personality Theories
|
intuitive ideas concerning personality traits and their associations with behavior |
|
Lexical approach
|
approach proposing that the most crucial features of personality are embedded in our language |
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Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
Openness to Experience
|
“openness” open people tend to be intellectually curious and unconventional |
|
Agreeableness
|
agreeable people tend to be friendly and easy to get along with |
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Conscientiousness
|
conscientious people tend to be careful and responsible |
|
Neuroticism
|
neurotic people tend to be tense and moody |
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Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
Extraversion
|
extraverted people tend to be social and lively |
|
Big Five
|
five traits that have surfaced repeatedly in factor analyses of personality measures |
|
Factor analysis
|
statistical technique that analyzes the correlations among responses on personality inventories and other measures |
|
Circular reasoning fallacy
|
a logical trap for reasoning |
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Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
Inferiority complex
|
feelings of low self-esteem that can lead to overcompensation for such feelings |
|
Style of life
|
according to Adler, each person’s distinctive way of achieving superiority |
|
Neo-Freudian theories
|
theories derived from Freud’s model, but that placed less emphasis on sexuality as a driving force in personality and were more optimistic regarding the prospects for long-term personality growth |
|
Genital stage
|
(12 years & older) psychosexual stage in which sexual impulses awaken and typically begin to mature into romantic attraction toward others |
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Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
Latency Stage
|
(6-12 years) psychosexual stage in which sexual impulses are submerged into the unconscious; opposite sex is “yucky/unappealing” |
|
Fixation
|
too much or too little gratification in a certain stage leads to becoming psychologically “stuck,” and prone to later regression |
|
Penis envy
|
supposed desired of girls in the phallic to possess a penis “just like Daddy has” |
|
Electra complex
|
conflict during phallic stage in which girls supposedly love their fathers romantically and want to eliminate their mothers as rivals |
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Koofers.com
|
Oedipus complex
|
conflict during phallic stage in which boys supposedly love their mothers romantically and want to eliminate their fathers as rivals |
|
Phallic stage
|
(3-6 years) psychosexual stage that focuses on the genitals |
|
Anal personalities
|
(18 months – 3 years) psychosexual stage that focuses on toilet training |
|
Oral stage
|
(birth to 12-18 months) psychosexual stage that focuses on the mouth |
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Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
Erogenous zone
|
sexually arousing zone of the body |
|
Sublimation
|
transforming a socially unacceptable impulse into an admired goal; ex: a boy who enjoys beating up on other children grows up to become a professional boxer |
|
Stockholm Syndrome
|
crisis in which some hostages develop emotional attachments toward their captors; ex: college basketball player who initially fears his tyrannical coach comes to like him and adopts his dictatorial qualities |
|
Identification with the aggressor
|
process of adopting the characteristics of individuals we find threatening |
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Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
Intellectualization
|
avoiding emotions associated with anxiety-provoking experiences by focusing on abstract and impersonal thoughts; ex. – a woman whose husband cheats on her reassures herself that “according to evolutionary psychologists, men are naturally sexually promiscuous, so there’s nothing to worry about.” |
|
Posthypnotic suggestions
|
a request given after emerging from hypnosis; ex: a political candidate who loses an election convinces herself that she didn’t really want the position anyways |
|
Rationalization
|
providing a reasonable-sounding explanation for unreasonable behaviors |
|
Displacement
|
directing an impulse from a socially unacceptable target onto a safer on; ex: outfielder throws glove to ground in anger after dropping a routine fly ball |
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Koofers.com
|
Projection
|
Unconscious attribution of our negative characteristic to others à deep down want to harm others, but bc accept these impulses they perceive others as wanting to harm them; ex: a man with powerful unconscious sexual impulses towards females complains that women are always “after him” |
|
Reaction-Formation
|
transformation of an anxiety-provoking emotion into its opposite; ex: a married woman who’s sexually attracted to a coworker experiences hatred and revulsion toward him |
|
Regression
|
the act of returning psychologically to a young, typically simpler and safe, age; ex: a college student starts sucking his thumb during a difficult exam |
|
Denial
|
motivated forgetting of distressing external experiences; ex: a mother loses child in car accident insists her child is alive |
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Koofers.com
|
Childhood amnesia
|
inability to remember anything prior to about age 3 ½; ex; a person who witnesses a traumatic combat scene finds himself unable to remember it |
|
Motivated forgetting
|
forget bc we want to forget |
|
Repression
|
motivated forgetting of emotionally threatening memories or impulses; most critical defense mechanism |
|
Defense mechanisms
|
unconscious maneuvers intended to minimize anxiety |
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Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
Superego
|
our sense of morality |
|
Reality principle
|
tendency of the ego to postpone gratification until it can find an appropriate outlet |
|
Ego
|
psyche’s executive and principal decision maker |
|
Pleasure principle
|
tendency of the id to strive for immediate gratification |
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Koofers.com
|
Id
|
reservoir of our most primitive impulses, including sex and aggression |
|
Libido
|
sexual drive |
|
Unconscious motivation
|
we rarely understand why we do what we do |
|
Psychic determinism
|
the assumption that all psychological events have a cause |
Generated by
Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
Psychogenic
|
Physiologically caused mental disorder |
|
Catharsis
|
feeling of relief following a dramatic outpouring of emotion |
|
Somatogenic
|
Physiologically caused mental disorder |
|
Molecular genetic studies
|
investigations that allow researchers to pinpoint genes associated with specific personality traits physiologically caused |
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Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
Idiographic approach
|
approach to personality that focuses on identifying the unique configuration of characteristics and life history experiences within a person |
|
Nomothetic approach
|
approach to personality that focuses on identifying general laws that govern the behavior of all indidviduals |
|
Traits
|
approach to personality that focuses on identifying general laws that govern the behavior of all individuals" |
|
Self-Perception Theory
|
we acquire our attitudes by observing our behaviors |
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Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
Impression Management Theory
|
we don't really change our attitudes; but report that we have so that our behaviors appear consistent with our attitudes |
|
Foot-in-the-Door Technique
|
persuasive technique involving making a small request before making a bigger one |
|
Door-in-the-Face Technique
|
making an unreasonably large request before making the small request we're hoping to have granted |
|
Low-Ball Technique
|
when the seller of a product starts by quoting a low sales price, & then mentions all of the "add-on" costs once the buyer agrees to purchase the product |
Generated by
Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
Prejudice
|
drawing conclusions about someone/something prior to evaluating the evidence |
|
Adaptive Conservatism
|
evolutionary principle that creates a predisposition toward distrusting anything/anyone unfamiliar or different |
|
In-Group Bias
|
favor individuals within group over others |
|
Out-Group Homogeneity
|
view all individuals outside our group as highly similar |
Generated by
Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
Discrimination
|
negative behavior toward certain people |
|
Stereotype
|
a belief (positive or negative) about the characteristics of a group of people |
|
Implicit & Explicit Stereotypes
|
stereotype of an out-group which we're either unaware (implicit) or aware (explicit) |
|
Minimal Inter-Group Paradigm
|
laboratory method for creating groups based on arbitrary differences |
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Koofers.com
Koofers.com
|
Ultimate Attribution Error
|
assumption that behaviors among individual members of a group are due to their internal characteristics |
|
Scapegoat Hypothesis
|
claim that prejudice arises from a need to blame other groups for our misfortunes |
|
Just-World Hypothesis
|
claim that our attributions & behaviors are shaped by a deep-seated assumption that the world is fair & all things happen for a reason |
|
Jigsaw Classrooms
|
educational approach designed to minimize prejudice by requiring all children to make independent contributions to a shared project |
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