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Final Exam - Flashcards
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| Class: | SOC 1113 - Intro to Sociology (HONORS) |
| Subject: | SOCIOLOGY |
| University: | University of Oklahoma |
| Term: | Spring 2010 |
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sociology
|
the systematic study of social interactions at a variety of levels |
|
sociological imagination
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the intersection between individual lives and larger social influences |
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microsociology
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the study of small-scale patterns of individuals' social interaction in specific settings |
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macrosociology
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the study of large-scale patterns and process that characterize society as a whole |
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theory
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a set of statements that explains why a phenomenon occurs |
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empirical
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information that is based on observations, experiments or experiences rather than on ideology, religion, or intuition |
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social facts
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aspects of social life, external to the individual, that can be measured |
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social solidarity
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social cohesiveness and harmony |
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division of labor
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an interdependence of different tasks and occupations, characteristic of industrialized societies, that produce social unity and facilitate change |
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capitalism
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an economic system in which the ownership of the means of production - like land, factories, large sums of money, and machines - is in private hands |
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alienation
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the feeling of separation from one's group or society the feeling of isolation, meaninglessness, and powerlessness that may affect workers in a bureeaucracy |
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value free
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separating one's personal values, opinions, ideology, and beliefs from scientific research |
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functionalism
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an approach that maintains that society is a complex system of interdependent parts that work together to ensure a society's survival |
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dysfunctional
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social patterns that have a negative impact on a group or society |
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manifest functions
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functions that are intended and recognized; they are present and clearly evident |
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latent functions
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functions that are unintended and unrecognized; they are present but not immediately obvious |
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conflict theory
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an approach that examines the ways in which groups disagree struggle over power and compete for scarce resources (such as property, wealth, and prestige) |
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feminist theories
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approaches that try to explain the social, economic and political positions of women in society with a view to freeing women from traditionally oppressive expectations, constraints, roles and behavior |
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symbolic interactionism
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a micro-level perspective that looks at individuals' everyday behavior through the communication of knowledge, ideas, beliefs, and attitudes |
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interaction
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action in which people take each other into account in their own behavior |
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social research
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research that examines human behavior |
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scientific method
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the steps in the research process that include: careful data collection, exact measurement, accurate recording and analysis of the findings, thoughtful interpretation of results, and, when appropriate, a generalization of the findings to a larger group |
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variable
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a characteristic that can change in value or magnitude under different conditions |
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hypothesis
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a statement of a relationship between two or more variables that researchers want to test |
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independent variable
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a characteristics that determines or has an effect on the dependent variable |
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dependent variable
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the outcome, which may be affected by the independent variable |
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reliability
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the consistency with which the same measure produces similar results time after time |
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validity
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the degree to which a measure is accurate and really measures what it claims to measure |
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deductive reasoning
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reasoning that begins with a theory, prediction, or general principle that is then tested through data collection |
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inductive reasoning
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reasoning that begins with a specific observation, followed by data collection and the development of a general conclusion or theory |
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population
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any well-defined group of people (or things) about whom researchers want to know something |
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sample
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a group of people (or things) that are representative of the population that researchers wish to study |
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probability sample
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a sample for which each person (or thing, such as an e-mail address) has an equal chance of being selected because the selection is random |
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nonprobability sample
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a sample for which little or no attempt is made to get a representative cross section of the population |
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qualitative research
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research that examines non-numerical material and interprets it |
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quantitative research
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research that focuses on numerical analysis of people's response or specific characteristics |
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surveys
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a systematic method for collecting data from respondents, including questionnaires, face-to-face or telephone interviews, or a combination of these |
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secondary analysis
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examination of data that have been collected by someone else |
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field research
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data collection by systematically observing people their natural surroundings |
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content analysis
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data collection method that systematically examines examples of some form of communication |
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experiment
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a carefully controlled artificial situation that allows researchers to manipulate variable and measure the effects |
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experimental group
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the group of subjects in an experiment who are exposed to the independent variable |
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control group
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the group of subjects in an experiment who are not exposed to the independent variable |
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culture
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the learned and shared behaviors, beliefs, attitudes, values, and material objects that characterize a particular group or society |
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society
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a group of people that has lived and worked together long enough to become an organized population and to think of themselves as a social unit |
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material culture
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the tangible objects that members of society make, use, and share |
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nonmaterial culture
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the shared set of meanings that people in society use to interpret and understand the world |
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symbol
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anything that stands for something else and has particular meaning for people who share a culture |
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language
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a system of shared symbols that enables people to communicate with one another |
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values
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the standards by which members of a particular culture define what is good or bad, moral or immoral, proper or improper, desirable or undesirable, beautiful or ugly |
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norms
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a society's specific rules concerning right and wrong behavior |
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folkways
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norms that members of a society (or a group within a society) look upon as not being critical and tat may be broken without severe punishment |
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mores
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norms that members of society consider very important because they maintain moral and ethical behavior |
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laws
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formal rules about behavior that are defined by a political authority that has the power to punish violators |
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sanctions
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rewards for good or appropriate behavior and/or penalties for bad or inappropriate behavior |
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ideal culture
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the beliefs, values, and norms that people in society say they hold or follow |
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real culture
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the actual everyday behavior of people in a society |
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culture universals
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customs and practices that are common to all societies |
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culture shock
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a sense of confusion, uncertainty, disorientation, or anxiety that accompanies exposure to an unfamiliar way of life or environment |
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subculture
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a group or category of people whose distinctive ways of thinking, feeling, and acting differ somewhat from those of larger society |
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counterculture
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a group or category of people who deliberately oppose and consciously reject some of the basic beliefs, values, and norms of the dominant culture |
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ethnocentrism
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the belief that ones culture and way of life are superior to those of other groups |
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cultural relativism
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the recognition that no culture is better than another and that a culture should be judged by its own standards |
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multiculturalism
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the coexistence of several cultures in the same geographic area without any one culture dominating another |
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popular culture
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the belief, practices, activites, and products that are widely shared among a population in everyday life |
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mass media
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forms of communication designed to reach large numbers of people |
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cultural imperialism
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the influence or domination of the cultural values and products of one society over those of another |
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cultural integration
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the consistency of various aspects of society, which promotes order and stability |
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cultural lag
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the gap when nonmaterial culture changes more slowly than material culture |
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socialization
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the lifelong process of social interaction in which the individual acquires a social identity and ways of thinking, feeling, and acting that are essential for effective participation in a society |
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internalization
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the process of learning cultural behaviors and expectations so deeply that we assume they are correct and accept them without question |
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sociobiology
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a theoretical approach that applies biological principles to explain that behavior of animals, including human beings |
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social learning theories
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approaches whose central notion is that people learn new attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors through social interaction, especially during childhood |
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looking-glass self
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a self-image based on how we think others see us |
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self
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an awareness of ones social identity |
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role taking
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learning to take the perspective of others |
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significant others
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the people who are important in ones life such as parents or other primary caregivers and siblings |
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anticipatory socialization
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the process of learning how to perform a role one doesn't yet occupy |
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generalized other
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a term used by George Herbert Mead to refer to people who do not have close ties to a child but who influence the child internalization of society norms and values |
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impression management
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the process of providing information and cues to others to present oneself in a favorable light while downplaying or concealing ones less appealing qualities |
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reference groups
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groups of people who shape an individuals self image, behavior, values, and attitudes in different context |
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agents of socialization
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the individuals, groups, or institutions that teach us what we need to know to participate effectively in society |
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peer groups
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any set of people who are similar in age, social status, and interests |
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resocialization
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the process of unlearning old ways of doing things and adopting new attitudes, values, norms, and behavior |
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total institutions
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place where people are isolated from the rest of society, stripped of their former identities, and required to conform to new rules and behavior |
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social interaction
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the process by which we act toward and react to people around us |
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social structure
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an organized pattern of behavior that governs people's relationships |
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status
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a social position that a person occupies in a society |
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status set
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a collection of social statuses that an individual occupies at a given time |
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ascribed status
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a social position that a person is born into |
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achieved status
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a social positions that a person attains through personal effort or assumes voluntarily |
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master status
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an ascribed or achieved status that determines a person's identity |
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status inconsistency
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the conflict or tension that arises from occupying social positions that are ranked differently |
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role
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the behavior expected of a person who has a particular status |
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role performance
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the actual behavior of a person who occupies a status |
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role conflict
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the frustrations and uncertainties a person experience when confronted with the requirements o two or more status ways to resolve: -compromise -negotiate -set priorities -compartmentalize -not take on more roles -exit the roles |
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role strain
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the stress arising from incompatible demands among roles within a single status |
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self-fulfilling prophecy
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a situation where if we define something as real and act upon it, it can, in fact, become real |
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ethnomethodology
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the study of how people construct and learn to share definitions of reality that make everyday interactions possible |
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dramaturgical analysis
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a technique that examines social interaction as if occurring on stage where people play different roles and act out scenes for the audiences with whom they interact |
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social exchange theory
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the perspective whose fundamental premise is that any social interaction between two people is based on each person's trying to maximize rewards (or benefits) and minimize punishments (or cost) |
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nonverbal communication
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messages that are sent without using words |
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social group
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two or more people who interact with one another and who share a common identity and a sense of belonging or we-ness |
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primary group
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a relatively small group of people who engage in intimate face-to-face interaction over an extended period of time |
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secondary group
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a large, usually formal, impersonal, and temporary collection of people who pursue a specific goal or activity |
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ideal types
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general traits that describe a social phenomenon rather than every case |
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in-groups
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sets of people who share a sense of identity and we-ness that typically excludes and devalues outsiders |
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out-groups
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people who are viewed and treated negatively because they are seen as having values, beliefs, and other characteristics different from those of an in-group |
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reference group
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a collection of people who shape our behavior, values, and attitudes |
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groupthink
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a tendency of in-group member to conform without critically testing, analyzing, and evaluating ideas, that results in a narrow view of an issue |
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social network
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a web of social ties that links an individual to others |
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formal organization
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a complex and structured secondary group that has been deliberately created to achieve specific goals in an efficent manner |
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voluntary association
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a formal organization created by people who share a common set of interests and who are not paid for their participation |
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bureaucracy
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a formal organization that is designed to accomplish goals and task through the efforts of a large number of people in the most efficient and rational way possible |
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iron law of oligarchy
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the tendency a bureaucracy to become increasingly dominated by a small group of people |
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glass ceiling
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a collection of attitudinal or organizational biases in the workplace that prevent women from advancing to leadership positions |
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social institution
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an organized and established social system that meets one or more of a society's basic needs |
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deviance
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behavior that violates expected rules or norms |
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stigma
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a negative label that devalues a person and changes her or his self concept and social identity |
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crime
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a violation of societal norms and rules for which punishment is specified by public law |
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criminologists
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researchers who use scientific methods to study the nature, extent, cause, and control of criminal behavior |
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victim survey
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a method of gathering data that involves interviewing people about their experiences as crime victims |
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victimless crimes
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acts that violate laws but involve individuals who don't consider themselves victims |
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social control
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the techniques and strategies that regulate people's behavior in society |
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sanctions
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punishments or rewards for obeying or violating a norm |
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anomie
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the condition in which people are unsure of how to behave because of absent, conflicting, or confusing social norms |
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stain theory
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the idea that people may engage in deviant behavior when they experience a conflict between goals and the mean available to obtain the goals |
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white-collar crime
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illegal activities committed by high-status individuals in the course of their occupation |
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occupational crimes
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crimes committed in the workplace by individuals acting solely in their own personal interest |
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corporate crimes
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white-collar crimes committed by executives to benefit themselves and their companies (organizational crimes) |
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cybercrime
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white-collar crimes that are conducted online |
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organized crime
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activities of individuals and groups that supply illegal goods and services for profit |
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social stratification
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the hierarchical ranking of people in a society who have different access to valued resources, such as property, prestige, power, and status |
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open stratification system
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a system that is based on individual achievement and allows movement up or down |
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closed stratification system
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a system in which movement from one social position to another is limited by ascribed statuses such as ones sex, skin color, and family background |
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social class
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a category of people who have a similar standing or rank in a society based on wealth, education, power, prestige, and other valued resources |
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wealth
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the money and the other economic assets that a person or family owns, including property and income |
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prestige
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respect, recognition, or regard attached to social positions |
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power
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the ability of individuals or groups to achieve goals, control events, and maintain influence over others despite opposition |
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socioeconomic status (SES)
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an overall ranking of a person's position in the class hierarchy based on income, education and occupation |
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conspicuous consumption
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lavish spending on goods and services to display ones social status and to enhance ones prestige |
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working poor
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people who work at least 27 weeks a year but receive such low wages that they live in or near poverty |
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underclass
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people who are persistently poor and seldom emplyed, segregated residentially, and relatively isolated from the rest of the population |
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life chances
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the extent to which people have positive experiences and can secure the good things in life because they have economic resources |
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absolute poverty
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not having enough money to afford the most basic necessities of life |
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relative poverty
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not having enough money to maintain an average standard of living |
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poverty line
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the minimal level of income that the federal government considers necessary for basic subsistence |
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feminization of poverty
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the higher likelihood that female heads of households will be poor |
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social mobility
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a person's ability to move up or down the class hierarchy |
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horizontal mobility
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moving from one position to another at the same class level |
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vertical mobility
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moving up or down the class hierarchy |
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intragenerational mobility
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moving up or down the class hierarchy over a lifetime |
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intergenerational mobility
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moving up or down the class hierarchy relative to the position of one's parents |
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davis-moore thesis
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the functionalist view that social stratification has beneficial consequences for a society's operation |
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meritocracy
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a belief that individuals are rewarded for what they do and how well rather than on the basis of their ascribed status |
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bourgeoisie
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those who own the means of production and can amass wealth and power |
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proletariat
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workers who sell their labor for wages |
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corporate welfare
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an array of direct subsidies, tax breaks, and assistance that the government has created for business |
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sex
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the biological characteristics with which we are born |
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gender
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learned attitudes and behaviors that characterize people of one sex or the other |
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gender identity
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a perception of one self as either masculine or feminine |
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gender roles
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the characteristics, attitudes, feelings, and behaviors that society expects of females and males |
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gender stereotypes
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expectations about how people will look, act, think, and feel based on their sex |
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sexism
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an attitude or behavior that discriminates against one sex, usually females, based on the assumed superiority of the other sex |
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gender stratification
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peoples unequal access to wealth, power, status, prestige, and other valued resources as a result of their sex |
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gender pay gap
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the overall income difference between women and men in the workplace (wage gap) |
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sexual harassment
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any unwanted sexual advance, request for sexual favors, or other conduct of sexual nature that makes a person uncomfortable and interferes with her or his work |
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sexual orientation
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a preference for sexual partners of the same sex, of the opposite sex, or of both sexes |
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homosexuals
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those who are sexually attracted to people of the same sex |
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heterosexuals
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those who are sexually attracted to people of the opposite sex |
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bisexuals
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those who are sexually attracted to members of both sexes |
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asexuals
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those who lack any interest in or desire for sex |
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transgendered people
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those who are transsexuals, intersexuals, or transvestites |
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heterosexism
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the belief that heterosexuality is superior to and more natural than homosexuality or bisexuality |
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homophobia
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the fear and hatred of homosexuality |
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abortion
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the expulsion of an embryo or fetus from the uterus |
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pornography
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the graphic depiction of images that cause sexual arousal |
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race
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a group of people who share physical characteristics such as skin color and facial features, that are passed on through reproduction |
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ethnic group
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a set of people who identify with a common national origin or cultural heritage that includes language, geographic roots, food, customs, traditions, and/or religion |
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racial-ethnic group
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a group of people who have both distinctive physical and cultural characteristics |
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dominant group
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any physically or culturally distinctive group that has the most economic and political power, the greatest privileges and the highest social status |
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apartheid
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a formal system of racial segregation |
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minority group
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a group of people who may be subject to differential and unequal treatment because of their physical, cultural, or other characteristics, such as gender, sexual orientation, religion, ethnicity or skin color |
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genocide
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the systematic effort to kill all members of a particular ethnic, religious, political, racial or national group |
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internal colonialism
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the unequaly treatment and subordinate status of groups within a nation |
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segregation
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the physical and social separation of dominant and minority groups |
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assimilation
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the process of conforming to the culture of the dominant group (by adopting its language and values) and intermarrying with that group |
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pluralism
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minority groups retain their culture but have equal social standing in a society |
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racism
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a set of beliefs that ones own racial group is naturally superior to other groups |
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prejudice
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an attitude, positive or negative, toward people because of their group membership |
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stereotype
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an oversimplified or exaggerated generalization about a category of people |
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ethnocentrism
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the belief that ones own culture, society, or group is inherently superior to others |
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scapegoats
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individuals or groups whom people blame for their own problems or shortcomings |
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individual discrimination
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harmful action directed intentionally, on a one-to-one basis, by a member of a dominant group against a member or a minority group |
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institutional discrimination
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unequal treatment and opportunities that members of minority groups experience as a result of the everyday operations of a society's laws, rules, policies, practices, and customs |
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gendered racism
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the combined and cumulative effects of inequality due to racism and sexism |
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contact hypothesis
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that idea that the more people get to know members of a minority group personally, the less likely they are to be prejudiced against that group |
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miscegenation
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marriage or sexual relations between a man and women of different races |
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government
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a formal organization that has the authority to make and enforce laws |
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politics
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a social process through which individuals and groups acquire and exercise power and authority |
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power
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the ability of a person or group to affect the behavior of others despite resistance and opposistion |
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authority
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the legitimate use of power |
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traditional authority
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authority based on customs that justify the positions of the ruler |
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charismatic authority
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authority based on exceptional individuals abilities and characteristics that inspire devotion, trust, and obedience |
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rational-legal authority
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authority based on the belief that laws and appointed or elected political leaders are legitimate |
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democracy
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a political system in which, ideally, citizens have control over the state and its actions |
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totalitarianism
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a political system in which government controls every aspect of peoples lives |
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authoritarianism
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a political system in which the state controls the lives of citizens but generally permits some degree of individual freedom |
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monarchy
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a political system in which power is allocated solely on the basis of heredity and passes from generation to generation |
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political party
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an organization that tries to influence and control government by recruiting and control government by recruiting, nominating, and electing its members to public office |
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special-interest group
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(interest groups) a voluntary and organized association of people that attempts to influence public policy and policymakers on a particular issue |
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lobbyist
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a representative of a special interest group who tries to influence political decisions on the groups behalf |
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political action committee (PAC)
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a special interest group set up to raise money to elect a candidate to public office |
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pluralism
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a political system in which power is distributed among a variety of competing groups in a society |
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power elite
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a small group of influential people who make a nations major political decisions |
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economy
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a social institution that determines how a society produces, distributes, and consumes goods and services |
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work
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physical or mental activity that accomplishes or produces something, either goods or services |
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capitalism
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an economic system in which wealth is in private hands and is invested and reinvested to produce profits |
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monopoly
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domination of a particular market or industry by one person or company |
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oligopoly
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a market dominated by a few large producers or suppliers |
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conglomerate
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a giant corporation that owns a collection of companies in different industries (KRAFT) |
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interlocking directorate
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a situation in which the same people serve on the board of directors of several companies or corporations |
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transnational corporation
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(multinational corporation, international corporation) a large company that is based in one country but operates across the international boundaries. |
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transnational conglomerate
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a corporation that owns a collection of difference companies in various industries in a number of countries |
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deindustrialization
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a process of social and economic change due to the reduction of industrial activity, especially manufacturing |
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offshoring
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sending work or jobs to another country to cut a company's cost at home |
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downsizing
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a euphemism for firing large number of employees at once |
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contingent workers
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people who don't expect their jobs to last or who say that their jobs are temporary |
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underemployed
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people who have part-time jobs but want full-time work or whose jobs are below their experience and education level |
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family
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an intimate group consisting of two or more people who live together in a committed relationship, care for one another and any children, and share close emotional ties and functions |
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incest taboo
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cultural norms and laws that forbid sexual intercourse between close blood relatives such as brother and sister, father and daughter, or uncle and niece |
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marriage
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a socially approved mating relationship that people expect to be stable and enduring |
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endogamy
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(homogamy) the practice of selecting mates from within one's group |
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exogamy
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(heterogamy) the practice of selecting mates from outsides one's group |
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nuclear family
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a form of family consisting of married parents and their biological or adopted children |
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extended family
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a family consisting of parents and children as well as other kin, such as uncles and aunts, nieces and nephews, cousins and grandparents |
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patrilocal residence pattern
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newly married couples live with the husband's family |
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matrilocal residence pattern
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newly married couples live with the wife's family |
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neolocal residence pattern
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each newly married couple sets up its own residence |
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boomerang generation
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young adults who move back into their parents' home after living independently for a while or who never leave in the first place |
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matriarchal family system
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the oldest females control everything, have power |
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patriarchal family system
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the oldest males control everything, have power |
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egalitarian family system
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both partners share power and authority fairly equally |
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marriage market
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a process in which a prospectives spouses compare the assets and liabilites of eligible partners and choose the best available mate |
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monogamy
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one person is married exclusively to another person |
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serial monogamy
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individuals marry several people, but one at a time |
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polygamy
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a marriage in which a man or women has two or more spouses |
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divorce
|
the legal dissolution of a marriage |
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no-fault divorce
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state laws that do not require either partner to establish guilt or wrongdoing on the part of the other to get a divorce |
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stepfamily
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a household in which two adults are married or living together and at least one of them has a child |
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cohabitation
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an arrangement in which two unrelated people are not married but live together and have a sexual relationship |
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dual-earner couple
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both partners are employed outside the home |
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fictive kin
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nonrelatives who are accepted as past of an African American fmaily |
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gerontologists
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scientists who study the biological, psychological, and social aspects of aging |
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life expectancy
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the average length of time people of the same age will live |
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sandwich generation
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people in a middle generation who care for their own children as well as their aging parents |
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activity theory
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proposes that many older people remain engaged in numerous roles and activities, including work |
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exchange theory
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contends that people seek through their interactions with other to maximize their rewards and to minimize their costs |
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continuity theory
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posits that older adults can substitute satisfying new roles for those they've love |
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education
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a social institution that transmits attitudes, knowledge, beliefs, values, norms, and skills to its members through formal, systematic training |
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schooling
|
formal training and instruction provided in a classroom setting |
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intelligence quotient (IQ)
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an index of an individuals performance on a standardized test relative to the performance level of others of the same age |
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hidden curriculum
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school practices that transmit nonacademic knowledge, values, attitudes, norms, and beliefs which legitimize economic inequality and fill unequal work roles |
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credentialism
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an emphasis on certificates or degrees to show that people have certain skills, educational attainment levels, or job qualifications |
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literacy
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the ability to read and write in at least one language |
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tracking
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assigning students to specific educational programs and classes on the basic of a test score, previous grades or perceived ability |
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vouchers
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publicly funded payments that parents can apply toward tuition of fees at a public or private school of their choice |
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charter schools
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self-governing public schools that have signed an agreement with their state government to improve students' education |
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magnet school
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a public school that is typically small and offers students a distinctive program and specialized curriculum in a particular area, such as business, science, the arts, or technology |
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home schooling
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teaching children in the home as an alternative to enrolling them in a public or private elementary, middle or high school |
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List View: Terms & Definitions
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