Study Guide for Exam 1 - Political Communication | PSCI 3244, Study notes of Political Science

Download Study Guide for Exam 1 - Political Communication | PSCI 3244 and more Study notes Political Science in PDF only on Docsity! Exam 1 Political Communication Thursday, September 18, 2008 CHAPTER 1 Political Communication Defined I. Introduction A. Terrorism Went From Criminality to Warfare. What Does This Mean? i. Targeting the organizations and governments behind the terrorists ii. Relying on armed forces. iii. Securing our national borders with force, with walls and electronic surveillance. iv. Conducting vigorous defense overseas. v. Deploying U.S. forces based on assumptions rather than overt attack. vi. Using force and preemptive strikes to deter future attacks. B. Polarization of Politics in the United States i. 2000 Presidential Election a. voter fraud and corruption ii. Media Usage a. Americans choose their news sources based on perceptions of philosophical and ideological leanings within the news broadcasts. i.e. Fox news Republican, CNNDemocratic C. Politics Broadly Defined i. Politics = the “currency” of social life ii. Activities determined by politics: -Who serves in office and how long - Where we send troops - Laws passed - When we can vote, drive, enter contracts and drink beer - Tax rates and level of public access - What is taught in public schools - Road built and safety of bridges - How often your garbage is collected iii. Feelings that flow from political discourse: - Frustration that our group has been neglected by the state legislature - Elation with a Supreme Court ruling that confirms our beliefs - Annoyance with President - Pride in the press - Anger with offhand remarks of a congressional leader in the house - Inspiration from a feature film in which the leading character demonstrates political courage. II. General Characteristics of Political Communication A. General Characteristics of Political Communications i. Short-Term Orientation a. Among the most common realities governing political life is a general preoccupation with the transitory issues and limited time frames. Messages are planned, prepared, and delivered with an eye to immediate 1 Exam 1 Political Communication Thursday, September 18, 2008 outcomes. Political messages that must enter the continuous flow of public discussion within a period of time that is both beneficial to the communicator and timely for the mass media of their audiences. b. Important points to remember when an issue or problem is defined: - For every concern, there appears to be a cycle of interaction, negotiation and completion. - The cycle and time frame seem to be getting shorter. i.e. Roe v. Wade c. The point here is that political communication seeks practical and immediate results. Its effectiveness usually hinges on its adaption to the transient nature of the public opinion and the fleeting attention of the mass media. ii. Based on Specific Objectives a. Political behavior is directed to some specific end, even when it takes on the appearance of predictable ritual. What is overlooked in the common complaint that political talk is a meaningless substitute for political action is the important fact that political talk is often intended to increase the prospects of the talker, who is the agent for certain political ideas. b. Much of political talk of campaigns, of legislation, and of public discourse ir carefully molded, crafted, and even sometimes tested to insure an intended effect. i.e. sound bites c. All forms of communication by political actors for achieving specific objectives, communication addressed to political actors by nonpolitical actors, and communication about political actors and their activities. d. Purposeful communication is directive, in that it is intentional; persuasive communication designed to alter a belief, attitude, value or lead to some individual or collective action. iii. Primarily Mediated a. Speeches, press conferences, pleas for support, justification of controversial decisions all imply the presence of constituencies—audiences for those acts. Most of those audiences are reached only by the extended coverage provided by the mass media. b. Two assumptions about the process 1. The role of political reporting is dedicated—in philosophy, if not always in practice—to a watchdog role of those public officials who are clearly within their own sphere of influence. 2. The mass media function in a way that reverses the familiar reporter—subject relationship. The political press controls the interpretation of the news as well as reports the news. c. The media competes with politicians to set public agendas, define issues, and frame public debate. For the public, the mass media, including the increasing role of the Internet, become the primary source of political 2 Exam 1 Political Communication Thursday, September 18, 2008 a. recognizes several contextual factors: political communication if influenced by our economic system; is influenced by historical factors and plays an important role in our democracy. ii. Three critical players: a. leaders b. media c. public C. Bruce Gronbeck i. Argues that, from a theoretical perspective, the definition of political communication has moved “away from politics as a titular term to politicalization as central to political activity and from political outcomes understood as policy (legislative- judicial politics) expanded to include those we now conceptualize as polity matters (identify politics.” ii. The key to understanding the Aristotelian conception of rhetoric and politics “is to conceive of politics as grounded in citizens’ needs and mores and of rhetoric as a tool for symbolically turning citizens’ needs and mores into the base of public policy.” D. Brian McNair i. Three elements a. political organizations Political parties, public interest groups, social movement groups, or government. b. media Includes all means, all modes and levels of mediated communication c. citizens Individuals or social groups with common purpose VI. The Four Concerns of Political Communication A. We view political communication from a more broad and encompassing perspective: as public discussion about allocation of public resources (revenues), official authority (who is given control; i.e., the power to make legal, legislative and executive decisions), official sanctions (what the state rewards or punishes), and social meaning (what does it mean to be an American and the role of citizen, implications of social policy, and so forth). A. Revenue B. Control C. Sanctions D. Meaning CHAPTER 2 Language and Politics I. Communication, Society and Social Order A. Introduction 5 Exam 1 Political Communication Thursday, September 18, 2008 i. At the heart of our perspective of government and politics is the notion of interaction. a. Interaction is a process involving acting, perceiving, interpreting, and acting again. Thus, it is through symbolic interaction with others that meaning is given to the world and creates the reality toward which individuals act. ii. Interaction, as a concept, is not limited to spoken and written language; objects also exist in physical forms that are given meaning through social interaction. a. specific objects may “communicate success, statues and acceptance. The cars we drive, the watches we wear, and even the pens we use are more than means of transportation, instruments for telling time, and tools of communication. b. These are social object; that is as objects that carry social meaning beyond their pragmatic function. iii. Interaction is the very fabric of society. Societies, therefore, consist of individuals in a constant and steady state of interaction. When we interact, we influence the behavior of each other. Behavior, then is created by interaction rather than simply being a result of interaction. iv. Social networks—formal or informal, social or political—provide a framework within which social actions takes place. a. The networks, therefore, are not determinants of action. This is to say, they do not cause an individual to act in a particular way, rather, they help shape or guide the action of individuals within the networks. II. Human interaction as the core of human existence A. Symbols i.. We carry on distinctively human behavior and interaction through the medium of symbols and their attached meanings. ii. We can create, manipulate and use symbols to control their own behavior as well as the behavior of others. ii. Definition: any object, mode of conduct, or word toward which we act as if it were something else. Whatever the symbol stands for constitutes its meanings. i.e. Flag iv. Human action is the by-product o the stimulus of symbols. Before we formulate a response to any situation, that situation must be defined and interpreted in order to ensure that our response is appropriate. Meanings for symbols derive from interaction in specific social contexts. B. Social Reality i. Our understanding of reality becomes a social product arising from interaction or communication. Reality is limited, specific and circumscribed. ii. We arrive at mutual understanding and subsequent action through communication or interaction. iii. This construction of reality is an active process that involves: a. Reality b. Definition 6 Exam 1 Political Communication Thursday, September 18, 2008 c. Interpretation d. Action e. Validation iv. The capacity to learn culture (or the process of socialization) enables us to understand one another and at the same time creates behavioral expectations. C. Society i. Symbolic perspective recognizes the dynamic, changing nature of society. ii. Individuals are constantly: interacting, developing and shaping society. iii. Interactivist orientation rejects the notion that human society is simply an expression of preestablished rules of individual or group interaction. iv. Kenneth Burke: Language is action and our language choices shape our views of the world and thus our response to social phenomena is coordination with others. v. How we use words to name people, actions, events, and so on—provides cues for ourselves and others for appropriate behavior. III. Generating Political Support A. Mass support is a long, continual, and active process B. Richard Rose’s three criteria that gauge the impact of governmental action on the fabric of society: i. The scope of government activity ii. The intensity of the impact of the government’s action iii. The frequency of impact of governmental decisions C. David EastonPolitical legitimacy: the conviction on the part of [a citizen] that is right and proper for him to accept and obey the authorities and to abide by the requirements of the regime. D. David Green: Language is the most powerful of human weapons E. The public both authorizes and allows its government to exercise power on its behalf. i. Lloyd Bitzer: A public is a community of persons who share conceptions, principles, interests, and values, and who are significantly interdependent. IV. Political Settings A. Green: Politics is a process of conflict resolution, conflict creation, and conflict management; and political language at once reflects and contributes these processes. B. Murray Edelman’s definition of political setting: whatever is background and remains over a period of time, limiting perception and responses. i. The setting creates the perspective from which mass audiences will analyze a situation, define their response, and establish the emotional context of the act that enfolds. Political actors must carefully assess the situation, calculate the appropriate action and identify the proper roles to assume. C. Peter Hall: “power, the control of others, is accomplished by getting others to accept your view and perspective. This is achieved by controlling, influencing and sustaining 7 Exam 1 Political Communication Thursday, September 18, 2008 belief negatively by branding unacceptable behavior. VI. Political Language A. Sharon Jarvis’s four assumptions about the nature of politics and political language or discourse. i. Citizens come to know politics through discourse or interaction. ii. Citizen discourse about politics is led, but not fully determined by, the discourse of the “elite”. iii. Labels function as powerful shortcuts in modern life and have important psychological effects on citizens. iv. The meetings of political terms indeed will shift from time to time and may become broader, narrower, or change entirely. B. Language’s functions: i. Agent of social integration ii. Means of cultural socialization iii. Vehicle for social interaction iv. Channel for transmission of values and ideology C. Claus Mueller: The individual attains a certain degree of understanding through the classification made possible by concepts that screen and structure perception. D. To control, manipulate, or structure the interpretation is the primary goal of politics in general. E. Political language, then, is power, social relationships, morals and ethics, identity, to name only a few items. F. Weaver: argued that when a person uses a particular argument, that person is actually asking listeners to agree with a particular view of reality. G. Weaver’s four main arguments (arranged in descending order to their ethical worth) i. Definition: “one way to interpret a subject is to define its nature—to describe the fixed features of its being. Definition is an attempt to capture essence. When we speak of the nature of a thing, we speak of something we expect to persist. Definitions accordingly deal with fundamental and unchanging properties.” ii. Similitude: “We say that it is something which we know in fuller detail, or that it is unlike that thing in important respects. From such a comparison conclusions regarding the subject itself can be drawn. This is a very common form of argument, by which probabilities can be established. iii. Cause and effect: “The process of interpretation is then to affirm it as the cause of some effect or as the effect of some cause. And the attitudes of those who are listening will be affected according to whether or not they agree with our cause and effect analysis. iv. Authority and Testimony: “Evidence is accepted not directly, but on the credit of testimony or authority. If we are not in position to see or examine, but can procure the deposition of someone who is, then deposition may become the substance of our argument. 10 Exam 1 Political Communication Thursday, September 18, 2008 CHAPTER 3 Functions, Styles, and Strategy: The Uses of Political Language I. Functions of Political Language A. Doris Graber’s five pragmatic functions of political language i. Information Dissemination a. The most obvious way political information reaches the public is through the sharing of explicit information about the state of the polity, which is vital to the public’s understanding and support of the political system. ii. Agenda Setting a. The agenda setting function of political language primarily occurs in two ways. 1. Before “something” can become an issue, some prominent politician must articulate a problem and hence bring the issue to public attention. The issue can be rather obvious (terrorism), in need of highlighting (status of American public education), or created (the Mexican border fence). 2. A major way political language establishes the national agenda is through its control of information disseminated to the public. iii. Past and Future a. A great deal of political rhetoric and language deals with reflecting on the past and predicting the future. Candidates evoke past memories and associates to stimulate a sense of security, better times, and romantic longings. They present an idealized future under their leadership and predict great success if their policies are followed. b. An important function of political language, therefore, is to link us to past glories and reveal the future in order to reduce uncertainty in a world of ever- increasing complexity and doubt. iv. Action Stimulation a. Political language mobilizes society and stimulates social action. Language serves as the stimulus, means, or rationale for social action. Words can evoke, persuade, implore, command, label, praise, and condemn. Political language stimulates public discussion and behavior about the allocation of public resources, authority, and sanctions. II. Functions and Styles of Governmental Language A. The Functions of Governmental Language i. Craig Smith identifies five functions of governmental language that are both pragmatic and programmatic: 1. To Unify 2. To Legitimize 3. To Orient 4. To Resolve Conflicts 11 Exam 1 Political Communication Thursday, September 18, 2008 5. To Implement Policies ii. From a governmental perspective, language generates a sense of inclusion and participation among citizens. Language also legitimizes and confirms in the minds of the public the authority, role, and justification of government actions. Related to the agenda-setting function indentified above, governmental language explains our national goals, policies, hopes and desires as well as articulates our needs, problems, and short comings. Social conflicts are resolved by issue discussion, explanation, debate, and negotiation. Finally, Government implements policy though the creation of legislation and regulatory interpretation. From this perspective, the language of government encompasses elected officials, government agencies, and government employees. III. Styles of Government Language A. Edelman’s four distinctive governmental language styles used to maintain political order: i. Hortatory a. directed toward mass public b. employed by individuals and contains the most overt appeals for candidate and policy support. c. The more sacred the symbol of value drawn upon, the greater the likelihood the public will react to its usage. i.e. Texas v. Johnson: flag burning as a form of political protestruled it was okay because it was his right to burn the flag as a form of political speech. ii. Legal a. Legal language encompasses laws, constitutions, treaties, statutes, contracts, and so on. b. It is the specialized language of lawyers, courts, and legislatures. c. It attempts to be precise but is often ambiguous to the general public. d. Legal language compels argument and interpretation, oftentimes flowing from the official language of the court to the public language of politics. i.e. Hamdan v. Rumsfeld: capturing of Osama bin Laden’s former chauffeur the legal ruling set in motion a flurry of public discussions about the decision’s meaning and also about what to do in its wake. iii. Administrative a. Related to legal language; it is the language or bureaucrats, of the rules and implementation of laws, and of interpretation of regulations. b. The style usually encourages public suspicion and ridicule. i.e. Kelo et al. v. City of New London: governments use of eminent domain iv. Bargaining a. “offers a deal, not an appeal “and is acknowledged as the real catalyst of policy information. 12 Exam 1 Political Communication Thursday, September 18, 2008 that he even learns to define what constitutes political reality to begin with. F. Michael Carpini’s definition of political socialization: i. Political socialization is a continuing process influenced by ongoing interactions with family and friends, the workplace, and significant personal and societal events, as well as through life cycle changes that affect one’s contact with and relationship to the political and social world. G. The general goal of political socialization is citizen education resulting in support of the political system and regime and is accomplished through social interaction. H. David Easton and Jack Dennis’s four psychological processes or stages of childhood development of political attitudes and beliefs. i. “politicalization”-children become aware of authority figures and institutions beyond their parents, relatives, or teachers. ii. “personalization”-when children begin to link “political authority” to specific individuals rather than in terms of governmental institutions. iii. “idealization”-when children view those with political authority as benevolent, trustworthy, helpful and kind. iv. “process of institutionalization”-when children are able to differentiate between local and federal government. II. Outcomes of Political Socialization A. Important outcomes of Political Socialization i. General public knowledge a. “individuals actively collect, store, modify, interpret, and incorporate new information with what they already know about the world.” ii. Political efficacy a. internal efficacy-refers to the perception and belief that one has the resources and knowledge to impact or participate in the political process. b. external efficacy- refers to the perception that government is responsive to citizen’s attempts to be heard. iii. Frequency of political discussion a. those who know more about politics are more likely to discuss politics and political issues. b. Discussion is a way to gain information, clarify points and influence the thoughts of others. iv. Positive attitudes and support of the system of government a. it is important for citizens to respect public officials and trust that justice and fairness will be the hallmarks of the judicial system. B. Jarol Manheim’s four models or theories that describe the ways of political learning or the acquisition of our general political knowledge: i. Accumulation theory: argues that political learning is an incremental process with the addition of very discrete unites of knowledge, information, and beliefs. a. Political attitudes are anchored in our political experience and guide our 15 Exam 1 Political Communication Thursday, September 18, 2008 choices for years. ii. Interpersonal transfer: explains affective judgments and relationships with political figures. iii. Identification model: similar to the interpersonal transfer, but learning is more direct. a. When an individual identifies with someone held in high esteem, he or she then proceeds to imitate that person’s attitudes and the direct “transmission” of values from the source to the recipient. iv. Cognitive Developmental Theory: we are all limited in our ability to understand political phenomena. a. The more developed our mental capabilities in deal with abstractions, the better we are able to understand the subtleties of abstract political concepts such as political ideologies or philosophies. IV. Agents of Political Socialization A. An agent of political socialization is “any person, institution, event, or other source from which we take cues as to how we should think or behave with regard to politics.” B. Four agents: i. Family a. Has greatest amount of influence b. Transmission of political values c. Religion is a source of political and social views d. Social status and religious values influence political values e. Spouse: common political attitudes, beliefs, and voting patterns. ii. Schools a. Provide general civic education and rituals such as the Pledge of Allegiance that help shape students’ attitudes toward government. b. Effective in teaching obedience to authority, the mechanics of our system of government, and the broad responsibilities of citizenship iii. Social/Peer Groups a. exerts a strong influence on key political decisions such as candidate choice, partisan support and issue opinions. b. We tend to associate with of similar political beliefs, attitudes, values and socioeconomic and class backgrounds. c. “two-step flow” process: argues that individuals may play the role of opinion leader—serving as a conduit of information and analysis obtained through the mass media and then sharing an interpretation or opinion with others who accept the judgment and call for action. iv. Media a. provides “raw materials” that make up our political beliefs, attitudes, and values. b. Exposure to mass media content impacts three broad aspects of a young person’s political socialization: 1. Cognitive (awareness, knowledge, images of politics) 16 Exam 1 Political Communication Thursday, September 18, 2008 2. Affective (interest, attitudes toward political leaders and issues, and attachment to the political system) 3. Behavioral (interpersonal discussion and political participation) c. The mass media impact what we think about politics, how we feel about politics, and what we do politically. d. Carpini: “The media influence the norms, values, beliefs, attitudes, opinions and actions that constitute democratic engagement…” -“third person effect” (explained by George Comstock and Erica Scharrer)- refers to the tendency for individuals to claim that while the media don’t influence then, the media certainly does influence others. V. Levels of Interaction A. Three levels of interpersonal political processes: i. person-to-person a. “two step flow” ii. Group-to-person iii. Opinion climate-to-person B. Most communication is hemophilic-based on shared values, similar education and religious background, as well as the same social status. C. Comstock and Scharrer reviewed the body of scholarship on political socialization. Three propositions: i. Although the mass media are often central in the dissemination of news about what has transpired, their influence on the judgments and opinions of individuals is small. ii. Political dispositions are largely rooted in personal experience where socializations by parents, the resulting allegiance to one or another political party and ideological outlook, and the social influence of those with whom one associates play major roles. iii. There is a strong tendency to conform to the expectations of others. VI. Issues of Political Socialization A. Stability of childhood political socialization i. older citizens more conservative than younger citizens life cycle effects ii. The older you are  more conservative, the younger you are more liberal B. Era i. Depression democratic ii. Prior to 1930 republican iii. Baby boomers  split C. American’s do not think about politics from a strict ideological perspective. i. The proportion of the citizens who exhibit consistent, well-integrated attitudes across a range of policy issues is rather small. D. Party identification has seen more nuanced chance i. decline in democratic affiliation 17 Exam 1 Political Communication Thursday, September 18, 2008 vii. Messages are narrowly defined and targeted. viii. Campaign workers and money come from outside the geographic area of the race. viiii. Money rules the day in terms of staff, advertizing and the use of campaign technology. II. Campaign Planning A. Campaign as Exercises in Communication i. William Sweeney: thinks “a political campaign is fundamentally a communications exercise about choices…between the aspirants for public office and the audience of voters.” ii. Campaigns are exercises in creation, re-creation and transmission of significant symbols through communication. a. Samuel Becker: the communication environment is a mosaic, and the infinite number of information “bits” or fragments on an infinite number of topics scattered over time and space. b. The “bits” are disorganized and exposure is varied and repetitive. c. As voters, we must arrange these bits into a cognitive pattern that comprises our mosaic of candidate, issues or situation. iii. Jonathan Robbin: “The essence of political campaigning is communications. A majority is built by repeatedly contacting voters and persuading them to register, turn out, and cast their ballot for the ‘right’ candidate or side of an issue.” a. market data alone will not guarantee electoral success; rather how the market data is applied is critical to the campaign process. iv. Shea and Burton: it is essential for every campaign to have a theme a. consistency and repetition of the campaign theme are critical considerations. b. campaign themes try to be as inclusive or broad as possible. v. Two basic types of issues a. Positional issues have well defined sides and require definitive positions (abortion, gun control) b. Valence issues more general concerns about which most people agree. (good schools, safe roads) II. Communication Functions of Campaigns A. Bruce Gronbeck’s “functional model of campaign research” i. Consistent with the uses and gratifications model, assumes that “receivers are active human beings who are subjecting themselves to communicative messages because certain needs can be satisfied and hence certain gratifications can be gained exposure from those messages. ii. Two functions in campaigns: a. Instrumental functions b. Consummatory functions go beyond candidate selection and legislative enactments.  they help create the meta-political images and social-psychological associations that provide the glue that holds our political system 20 Exam 1 Political Communication Thursday, September 18, 2008 together.  Two Consummatory functions: 1. Personal involvement: direct participation, self-reflection and definition, social interaction and discussion, and aesthetic experiences of public drama and group life. 2. Legitimization of the electoral process: reaffirming commitment to our brand of democracy, debate and political campaigning. c. Behavioral activation motivate voters to vote or to help in a campaign d. Cognitive adjustments campaigns, by discussing issues, may stimulate awareness of issues, reflect candidate views, or result in voter position modification e. Legitimize new leadership and the subsequent rules, laws and regulations B. 5 functions of political campaign communication: i. Name identification a. High name identification can save the campaign money and provide and advantage when participating in a primary. ii. Candidate image a. candidate image includes all the attributes and impressions of the candidate. b. Once formed, this is difficult to change iii. Issue development and exploration a. the majority of campaign communication deals with issue development and explanation iv. Attacking the opposition a. challengers assailing incumbents in order to generate reasons for voters to abandon a perhaps better-known incumbent. b. radio and direct mail v. Defense function a. denial b. explanation c. general response d. counterattack III. Political Marketing A. Gary Mauser argues that candidates and marketers have the same basic problems and goals. Both compete for the support of a specified, target croup under the constraints of time, money and personnel. B. Bruce Newman and Richard Perloff’s definition of political marketing: i. the application of marketing principles and procedures in political campaigns by various individuals and organizations. The procedures include the analysis, development, execution, and management of strategic campaigns by candidates, political parties, governments, lobbyists and interest groups that seek to 21 Exam 1 Political Communication Thursday, September 18, 2008 drive public opinion, advance their own ideologies, win elections and pass legislation and referenda in response to the needs and wants of selected people and groups in society. C. Business and politics analogy i. at the heart of the marketing concept is the exchange between a buyer and a seller. ii. The politician offers political leadership through politics advocated and a vision for the country in exchange for the vote of confidence revealed in public opinion polls. D. Newman and Perloff’s two main differences between business marketing and political marketing. i. There is a difference in philosophy a. business=profit b. politics=successful operation of democracy ii. business marketing is closely followed a. the implementation of political marketing research depends upon the philosophies and inclination of the politician. IV. Key Elements of a Campaign A. Strategic Environment i. includes voters, interest, groups, political parties, finances, control over information, television, and the issue of incumbency. ii. Four general areas of concern that must be kept in mind when thinking of the strategic environment. a. political concernsparty identification, party nomination rules, number of likely opponents, incumbency and voter behavior and attitudes. b. social concernsdominant social issues, issues created by candidates, and unforeseen or unexpected events. (economy, crime, abortion) c. electoral lawspreprimary period: which races to enter and which to avoid, getting on the ballot, signatures and early decision. Primary period: allocation of delegates to state and national conventions. Electoral college: efforts in close state races d. partisan structure of the racedetermines the strategy to the degree that it requires a candidate to appear centrist, right or left wing. B. Organization i. the organization of a candidate is vital. At the presidential level, campaign organizations are large, specialized and complex. ii. Internal a. advisors and strategists (people who plan the strategy, coordinate the effort, and manage the overall campaign) iii. External a. media b. “get-out-the-vote” 22 Exam 1 Political Communication Thursday, September 18, 2008 campaigns ii. Consultants are compensated by a “fee-for-service” and must recruit clients. iii. Campaign folks are salaried employees of the national or state party. iv. Party staffers usually do not get involved in primaries, consultants do. F. Reasons why political officeholders and candidates need the services of campaign specialists: i. the modern campaign requires the performance of many specialized tasks that include advertising, issue research, strategy development, polling and fund-raising. ii. The impact of behavioral and social science concepts and theories concerning motivation. The scientific approach to opinion formation and dynamics has become an essential element of every campaign. You need to be able to predict public attitudes and behavior. iii. Extensive direct voter contact is impossible iv. Role of mass media in our society. Actions and statements are carried beyond the immediate audience. The media serve as a source of information, persuasion and presentation of reality. To use a medium requires knowledge of that medium— its strengths, weaknesses and nature. VII. A Campaign Plan A. An important function of a political consultant B. Daniel Shea and Michael Burton: i. A campaign plan defines what is to be done, when it should be done, who should be doing it, and what will be needed to finish the job. Good plans divide responsibility, integrate work, and offer a step-by-step blueprint of the election. C. Elements of a campaign plan (Shea and Burton) i. District profileused to plan key areas of travel and contact ii. Demographic profilesegmentation of voters iii. Candidate and opponent profilekey information on background, experience, committees, social group affiliations, bill scholarship, appointments, etc. iv. Electoral historygeneral summary of electoral history of the district of area with very detailed summaries from the past 2-3 elections. v. public opinionrelevant polling information vi. General strategycontains the basic themes, issues and candidate position in the campaign. vii. Communications strategythe plan provides separate rate schedules and buys for each medium: television, radio, newspaper, etc. Also, it lays out strategy for news coverage and summaries of issue positions complete with prepared questions and answers for rapid response. viii. GrassrootsGOTV VIII. Campaign Research A. a highly specialized function and provides the basis for strategy development and execution. B. provides a great deal of data in the overall plan including voting patterns, voter turnout, demographic correlates of voting, voter attitudes, opinions, issues, registration and election projections. 25 Exam 1 Political Communication Thursday, September 18, 2008 C. “bible” that summaries the relevant issues of the campaigns; profiles friendly votes; analyzes the oppositions strengths, weakness and strategy; and provides local data for campaign stops. D. 4 categories of Information on opposition research: i. political information ii. Campaign finance information iii. Career information iv. Personal information IX. Campaign Strategy A. Three main goals of campaign strategy (Shea and Burton): i. reinforcementkeeping core or base voters committed ii. Persuasiongaining the support of swing or undecided voters iii. Conversionbringing opponent supporters to your side B. The main point is that the campaign message must draw a line of distinction between the candidate and the opposition by framing a clear choice for voters. C. Faucheux argues that every campaign needs four strategies: i. message sequenceidentifies the order of presenting arguments to voters ii. Timing and intensityspecifies when the candidate acts and at what pace iii. Mobilization and persuasiontargets voter preferences and allocates resources to specific favorable voting groups. iv. Opportunityfinds ways to exploit situational events or obstacles. D. Basic questions of an overall campaign strategy: i. Who is the target audience? ii. What is the message iii. What resources are needed to reach the target audience? iv. When will the target audience be reached? v. How will they be reached? X. Channels of Communication and Communication Strategy A. Four basic communication channels: i. electronic media ii. Print media iii. Display media iv. Personal contact B. The most difficult task is to determine the best combination of media to reach the potential audience and which best communicates the desired theme. C. To determine a communication strategy: i. target audience must be identified ii. Map voter perceptions iii. Identifying and characterizing the competition iv. Various strategies can be identified, discussed and evaluated v. budge is allocated, strategy determined, timing and content of appeals are isolated and detailed media and marketing plan is established D. Standard, well0known marketing and advertizing dictum: products compete best against each 26 Exam 1 Political Communication Thursday, September 18, 2008 other as long as they are perceived as being similar to each other. E. Gary Mauser’s most effective communications strategies: i. stress the importance of features that are most attractive to the target electorate ii. Avoid, or state euphemistically, the features that are deemed to be undesirable iii. Coordinate all information and advertising to reinforce the most important feature of the candidate iv. Attempt to move the candidate along those dimensions that can place him or her in an advantageous position. XI. Negative and Attack Strategies A. Attack phase i. When candidates are engaged in comparisons and contrasts of records, visions, policy goals and outcomes. B. Two primary negative tactics campaigns use against one’s opponent: i. guilt by association ii. Red-herring XII. Campaign Tactics A. Advertising i. most recognized and controversial service provided by consultants. ii. Joe McGunniss: a. politics in a sense, has always been a con game…advertizing, in many ways, is a con game too.. it is not surprising then that politicians and advertizing men should have discovered one another. And once they recognized that the citizen did not so much vote for a candidate as make a psychological purchase of him, not surprising that they begun to work together. iii. Early political ads had the candidate speaking directly to the camera iv. Later political ads included live broadcasted events v. contemporary political ads are creative, fully utilizing the medium of television with color, music and a variety of technological manipulations. vi. Functions of political ads: a. to create interest in a candidate b. to build name recognition c. to provide motivation for candidate support d. to reinforce support e. to influence the undecided f. to identify key issues and frame questions for public debate g. demonstrate the talents of the candidate h. entertainment vii. 4 political advertising messages a. positive messagespromote positive attributes of a candidate b. negative messages attack the opponent c. comparative messagesattack opponent but focus on issue positions d. response messagesanswer a challengers charges, allocations and attacks 27 Exam 1 Political Communication Thursday, September 18, 2008 ii. Personal charisma iii. Fundraising capabilities iv. Audience adaption II. The Process A. Three presidential nominating systems i. congressional caucus system candidates had to appeal to congressmen and political elite. (1800-1824) ii. Brokered convention systemPopularity with state and local officials as well with major officeholders was critical for the successful candidate. (1832-1968) iii. 1972 presidential electionold system: consent of the governed; new system: government by the people; national conventions normally ratify state primaries, conventions and caucuses. B. Concerns and issues of the presidential nomination system: i. officeholders are at a disadvantage because of the need for full-time personal campaigning. ii. Role of political parties decreases iii. Primaries in some states are more important than others iv. Rules for delegate selection differ among states v. sequencing of primaries changes the number of candidate choices in later primaries vi. Citizens learn little about candidate during primary process vii. Public opinion seldom corresponds to those of specific or important state primaries viii. Convention delegates are not representative of general public ix. Journalists’ play a major role in the campaigns x. current system favors people who have a burning desire for power and who can campaign full time. III. Phases of the Presidential Campaign A. Surfacing Phase i. candidates must achieve visibility, establish credibility or fitness, and begin to build a viable organization. ii. Establishes expectations of candidates issues and front runner emerges iii. Dennis Johnson’s three vital considerations: a. adequate fund-raising b. candidates must gain attention, support and endorsements c. candidates want to fain positive media attention and be portrayed as viable iv. Dominant elements of this stage of the campaign are finances, polls and organizational considerations. v. Strategic environment is characterized by lack of formal rules, emphasis on many candidates and talk of various factions needing appeasement within political parties. vi. “Great Mentioner”the media provide predictions of candidate viability and/or potential weaknesses. vii. Important elements candidates must acknowledge if they want to be successful: 30 Exam 1 Political Communication Thursday, September 18, 2008 a. when to enter the race b. how the collective media set the agenda for the surfacing period c. develop and articulate the campaign theme as part of their campaigns rhetorical vision. d. key issues to be emphasized during the campaign viii. Rituals a. fund-raising events b. speaking engagements c. parties and dinners ix. Hardest to establish that the candidate is presidential material x. 4 trends during surfacing phase (Dennis Johnson) a. the amount of money a potential candidate needs to raise continues to increase with each election cycle b. media interest is on the horserace nature of the season rather than on issues or policy. c. primaries are earlier and closer together d. internet and online communications are becoming increasingly important B. Primary Phase i. 1971 McGovern/Fraser Commission of the Democratic Party implemented changes: a. quota system for delegate selection that required a certain percentage of minorities, women and young people b. the party published uniform rules for all delegate selection ii. Three dominant elements of this phase: a. media b. campaign organization c. strategic environment iii. Voters develop perceptions of the candidate’s personal qualities and later about the candidates viability and potential competence. iv. A strong organization is vital to the primary processstrategic team must decide which contests to enter and develop and appropriate strategy for each. v. media expectations often determine the magnitude of candidate success of failure. vi. Strategic environment is fully energized: in a contested nomination battle, candidate organizations must be ready to respond to new issues, charges or allegations. vii. Iowa and New Hampshire viii. Front-loading effects: a. it gives advantage to those who win in the preprimary period in terms of endorsements and amount of money raised b. for those candidates who are successful, front-loading magnifies media exposure. C. Convention Phase i. Convention drama and pattern: a. there is some conflict either over the nomination or various platform 31 Exam 1 Political Communication Thursday, September 18, 2008 positions b. party leaders generate some compromises among the various factions c. big celebration focuses on the candidate and the pending campaign d. media pass judgment and begin to forecasting the race. ii. Functions of the convention: a. provide legitimization of the nomination process and the party’s nominees b. provide an opportunity for the party to show unity and showcase party principles. c. provide the candidate the opportunity to share their social agenda and issue positions. ii. Dominant elements of the convention phase are organization and media. D. General Campaign Phase i. shortest and most intense ii. Dominant elements a. strategic environment critical to all decision making, dominated by the peculiar calculus demanded by the rules of the Electoral College; candidates campaign in states with more votes (Michigan, Ohio, Pennsylvania, California) b. news media primary means of reaching the voters (paid advertising and news coverage) c. organization where to spend money IV. Strategies of Campaign Communication A. Public Statements about Strategy i. Public statements about campaign strategies can come from three sources (Eubank): a. the candidate b. the candidate’s spokesman c. opponent ii. Themes of public statements are: a. consistency b. uniqueness iii. One cannot distinguish between rational issues and emotions issues iv. The key to understanding issues is audience response, with the real question being whether or not citizens understand the scope, complexity or relevance of some issues. B. Incumbent Strategies i. Judith Trent and Robert Friedenberg’s overview of incumbent strategy: a. incumbents have many more strategy options than challengers b. some of the strategies involved maximizing symbolic, subtle effects of the office. 32 Exam 1 Political Communication Thursday, September 18, 2008 i. Television has had the greatest impact on the form and content of presidential debates. ii. Debate’s benefits for the electorate: a. the provide an opportunity to compare the personalities and issue positions of the candidate in a somewhat spontaneous setting. b. invite serious consideration and attention to the campaign and the candidates, thus stimulating voter interest in the election. c. they increase candidate accountability iii. Discussion on various aspects of the debate such as whether or not to sit or stand, cameras, lighting, podiums dominated thought during the late 1970’s and early 1980’s. iv. Three different formats of deate: a. panel of reporters b. talk show format c. audience questions v. in 1996 it was a question if the independent Perot could participate. vi. Candidates spend 2-3 days prior to the debates practicing in front of a knowledgeable panelist. vii. Edwin Diamond and Kathleen Friery argue that perhaps the media coverage is more important than the actual debates. viii. 5 media themes of debate coverage (Diamond and Friery) a. the media being weeks in advance “signaling the big event”issues, strategies, preparation, and negation are discussed in print and broadcast. b. the media spend a great deal of time “picking the winners and losers” they speculate on who won and why and what impact the outcome will have. c. “assessing candidates appearance” d. “debate as theatre”journalists want excitement, drama and confrontation. e. “avoiding the facts”the press is so concerned with reporting impressions of the debate that it fails to report enough facts of the debate. ix. Successful debaters: a. direct their remarks at highly targeted audiences b. develop and overall theme throughout the debate c. avoid specifics and make sure of proven safe responses d. present themelves as vigorous, active leaders e. foster identification of themselves with national aspirations f. foster identification of themselves with the dominant political party/philosophy g. personify themselves as exemplifying a desirable characteristic. x. Debate research a. debates have more influence in races where one of the candidates is unknown, when votes are undecided, when races are close and when 35 Exam 1 Political Communication Thursday, September 18, 2008 party allegiances are weak b. debates have more influence with voters who are highly interested in the race c. Debates are information-rich and provide issue knowledge to views. However, studies show that most issue learning occurs from the first debate with less knowledge acquired from subsequent debates. d. debates influence viewer perceptions of candidate character or image traits. e. debate viewing promotes civic engagement and the electoral process f. between labor day and election day, debate-related news stories are among the most frequent of all campaign stories g. newspapers better reflect content and exchanges in debates than television h. news reports about the debate are more influential than the actual debate in terms of impact on public perceptions on who won and who lost i. debates force candidates to focus their message, respond to opponents’ charges, and encourage them to be more introspective j. there are fewer candidate attacks in the town-hall debate format. xi. Trent and Frendenberg’s debate strategies: a. Prior to the debate, campaigns lower expectations of candidate performance b. campaigns engage in mind games to set up their opponent c. determine primary audience and message points d. practice e. During the debate, candidates want to make sure they continually mention their issues and campaign themes. They also want to reinforce images of leadership, create opportunities of audience identification, and reflect desired character personality traits. f. surrogates claim victory for the candidate 36