Understanding Psychology: History, Perspectives, and the Nervous System, Study notes of Psychology

Download Understanding Psychology: History, Perspectives, and the Nervous System and more Study notes Psychology in PDF only on Docsity! Review Sheet --- PSYC 2004, Exam 1 Kurt A. Hoffman Matt Silton The exam will be 50 multiple choice questions. Here’s a list of what you need to know… -give an example of someone complaining of symptoms (fear of commitment), apply concepts to that. 7 perspectives of modern psych especially will have these hypothetical situations -all chapter 1 and 4, few pages from 2, few from 14. But 90% or more of Qs are coming from lecture notes. -no pictures or graphs to label. Know which areas (hindbrain, etc) have which structures (hypothalamus, etc) Expanded version: Know everything about, and all examples relevant to, the following topics… Background What psychology is; definitions of behavior and mental processes - Science of behavior and mental processes - Behavior- overt action and reaction (objectively observed) - Mental processes- thoughts, emotions, ideas, reasoning processes What psychologists do—jobs About 33% are in universities (teaching/research), 40-45% in health and human service fields, the rest in business, sales, administration, etc. History --- early labs and perspectives The Beginning Wilhelm Wundt (1832 – 1920): •1st psychology lab •Emphasized structuralism -- study of the structure of immediate conscious experience (psych. = study of consciousness) •Used introspection -- self-examination of mental processes William James (1842 – 1910): •American •Emphasized functionalism -- study of how the mind works, and why we behave/think the way we do •Increased emphasis on behavior, and on practical applications of psychology 7 current psychological perspectives Psychoanalytic: (e.g. Freud) focus on the unconscious; clinical problems due to unconscious conflicts Behaviorist: (e.g. Skinner) focus on observable behavior; behavior changes through learning Humanistic: Psychoan. and behaviorism too simple, negative; focus on the person and how good he/she can become Cognitive: counter to behaviorists, focus on thoughts and what is happening in the mind Biological: physiology (brain, hormones) of behavior Evolutionary: focuses on why a behavior occurs, its function; involves an implied comparison to our ancestors or to other animals Social/Cultural: studying differences in behaviors and thoughts across situations and cultures Research going beyond common sense: likes attract, good study habits, the bystander effect -likes do attract statistically -better to study in small increments -more chance of people taking action to save you if you are in a small group 4 attitudes that characterize scientists 1.Curiosity --ask questions even about seemingly mundane things 2.Skepticism --question what many people accept as true; negotiate fact vs. assumption 3.Objectivity --evaluating empirical research and theories on their own merits --not biased or using preconceived notions 4.Critical thinking --evaluating evidence completely, asking yourself ‘how do you know what you know’ about a certain topic Scientific method --- ‘OHDAC’, theory, empiricism, variables, operational definitions, populations and random samples 1.Make an Observation -- can be practically anything that you find interesting 2.Make a Hypotheses (based on theory) that you can test in order to learn more about your observation. Hypothesis-- A tentative statement expressing a relationship between variables Theory-- collection of interrelated ideas and observations that explain and predict 3.Design a study --Identify important variables --Decide to how define and measure the variables Neurotransmitters --- what they do, 6 discussed in class NEUROTRANSMITTERS •Chemicals released by one neuron and binding to another. •Can be either excitatory (ENCOURAGING neuron to fire) or inhibitory (DISCOURAGING the neuron to fire). In a sense, the excitatory and inhibitory messages ‘duke it out’ in determining whether a particular neuron will fire… with enough excitatory messages, it will. EXAMPLES: - serotonin- sleep regulation and appetite, anxiety and depression (many current antidepressants affect serotonin) - dopamine- emotions, pleasure, thought, movement, also involved in schizophrenia (too much), parkinson’s (too little) and drug abuse - norepinephrine - emotional arousal, fear, hunger? - acetylcholine- memory and learning, muscle activity (black widow venom affects this and leads to muscle spasms, alzheimer’s involves insufficient production of this - gaba- very common inhibitory neurotransmitter in brain, regulation of anxiety, alcohol and valium affect these receptors - endorphins- block pain (endogenous morphine), elevate mood Divisions and structures of the nervous system: A. Peripheral 1. Somatic- voluntary nervous system. Sensory and motor neurons. 2. Autonomic- takes messages to and from the body’s organs a. Sympathetic- activates fight-or-flight response (AROUSING); ie: increase: heart and breathing rate, blood glucose (energy), pupil size; will relax bladder and inhibit digestion and salivation b. Parasympathetic- active more often, controls normal operations and calms the body (CALMING); ie: will decrease: heart and breathing rate, pupil size. Will also turn glucose to fat, contract the bladder, and stimulate digestion and salivation B. Central 1. Spinal Cord- reflex responses, relay to/from brain 2. Brain - ‘lower’ structures (toward spinal cord) carry out basic life processes (hindbrain/midbrain). ‘higher’structures carry out complex cognitive functions (midbrain/forebrain) a. Hindbrain & Midbrain Structures HIND: -cerebellum- balance and coordinated movement -medulla- heartrate and breathing, reflexive behaviors like walking -pons- sleep and arousal, some reflexes MID: -reticular formation- arousal and attention -smooth movement, visual and auditory info (repetition- tying shoes, shooting a basketball) Note- medulla, pons and reticular formation are for basic reflexes and arousal b. Forebrain Structures i. subcortical structures -–thalamus: relay station –hypothalamus: autonomic info; homeostasis –limbic system (emotion center of brain) •hippocampus: memory/learning •amygdala: emotions, like fear, and positive emotions toward things that I want ii. cerebral cortex --- what it is, 4 lobes importance of assoc. areas, inhibition (Phineas Gage), plasticity, cerebral lateralization Outside layer of forebrain: the cerebral cortex – 2–3 mm thick – Wrinkled and convoluted --- MUCH surface area – Controls complex and abstract thought Other Notes on Cerebral Cortex: 1)A LOT OF IT, in humans, is devoted to INTEGRATING new info with prior knowledge & ideas. -1)In humans, about ¾ of cortical mass is Association area --- deciphering/integrating current information and deciding what to do about it. This is kind of what sets us apart… a rhesus monkey’s cortex would look pretty similar. But a cat, or a rat, would have MUCH greater proportion of sensory and motor (depicted as red and black); also the cortex would be smoother, fewer grooves. 2)A LOT OF IT helps us to INHIBIT inappropriate responses. -see phineas gage 3)It is very adaptable, ‘plastic’, especially when young. - girl in video who had hemispherectomy and her brain adapted to only being half its original size 4)It has 2 hemispheres, left and right, with SOME specialization of function. -• Hemispheres connected by the corpus collosum • Sensory and motor pathways ‘cross over’ (at the medulla), so L side of brain controls R side of body, R side of brain controls L side of body. • SOME specialization in hemispheres: - Left: language, sequential tasks - Right: spatial info, emotional and nonverbal info PHINEAS GAGE Accident in 1848 damaged pathways between his limbic system and frontal lobes. He survived, but his personality was altered. He became impulsive, and had great difficulty maintaining focus, controlling emotions, relating to others. Frontal lobes initiate activity AND suppress inappropriate behaviors. Development Nature/nurture defined; Mulcaster, Galton’s, current views SCHIAE •The acquisitive stage: childhood and adolescence--- acquire information, be a ‘sponge’ •The achieving stage: Young adult---intelligence applied to specific situations. Larger goals like career, family, social relations important •The responsible stage: middle adulthood--- concerns relating to personal situations, including protecting and nurturing their families and careers •The executive stage: also middle adulthood (not attained by all)---taking a broader perspective, including concerns about the world and wider social needs Moral development- LEVEL 1: -stage 1- heteronomous morality- pursue on interests but let others do the same, must be equal -stage 2- individualism, purpose, and exchange. Obey authority because they tell you to. Moral decisions based on fear of punishment LEVEL 2: -stage 3- mutual interpersonal expectations, relationships and interpersonal conformity. Individuals value trust, caring and loyalty to others as a basis for moral judgements. -stage 4- social system morality. Moral judgements based on understanding social order, law, justice and duty LEVEL 3: -stage 5- social contract or utility and individual rights. Individuals reason that values, rights and principles undergird or transcend the law -stage 6- universal ethical principles. Person has developed moral judgements that are based on universal human rights. When faced with a dilemma between law and conscience, a personal, individualized conscience is followed. Social development --- Erikson’s Identity and Intimacy stages, what attachment is, -attachment- close emotional bond between an infant and its caregiver STAGES: - trust v. mistrust (0-1.5 yrs) - autonomy v. shame and doubt (1.5-3 yrs) - initiative v. guilt (3-5) - industry v. inferiority (6-puberty, elementary school) - identity v. identity confusion (10-20) - intimacy v. isolation (20s 30s) - generativity v. stagnation (40s 50s) - integrity v. despair (60s- ^ ) Ainsworth’s types of attachment, why attachment exists, sources of support/conflict for children and adolescents. 4 Categories of Attachment: Ainsworth (1970) measured a child’s response to mother after brief separation (“Strange Situation”) -Secure (60%)—explore while she’s gone, but approach her upon return -Insecure-Avoidant (20%)—not distressed while gone; resist proximity upon return -Insecure-Ambivalent or Resistant (15%)—upset while gone; both clingy and angry upon return -Disoriented/disorganized (5%)—no clear patterns – confused -- often occurs occurs in maltreated children Okay, children are attached to their parent(s). But what happens as we get older? According to Erikson’s (1968) Model of Socioemotional Development (8 stages, across lifespan), adolescents and young adults concerned with discovering who they are and how they relate to others… • Identity vs. Identity Confusion Stage Teens – explore who you are, make own choices (occupation, college, sex, values, etc.); explore new roles • Intimacy vs. Isolation Stage Young adults – intimate relationships & looooove; finding oneself yet losing oneself in another Adolescence --- some common problems and their causes, egocentrism; overall a positive period of development Common problems are: • Conflict with parent(s) • Risk-taking behavior • Mood fluctuations One major factor is WHO your friends are. Having antisocial friends (get into trouble/fights at school, lie, take risks that make friends uncomfortable) in early adolescence is linked to: •depression •substance abuse •deviant behavior in late adolescents Many adolescents also think differently than those older and younger… Adolescent egocentrism (Elkind): • Imaginary audience: “Everyone’s looking at me!” • Personal fable: “Nobody understands my plight!” • Hypocrisy: fuzzy ethics, see others as inconsiderate but not yourself • Pseudostupidity: oversimplified logic, “If alcoholics know they will die of liver failure, why don’t they just stop?” Most RECENT research characterizes adolescence as a normal, happy period. Cross-cultural findings suggest that 3 of 4 teens are happy, with positive self-images and belief in their abilities to overcome challenges. Good example of ‘Positive Psychology’ research… • finding that the teens are happy, confident, etc. • investigating what factors predict their happiness Sensation and Perception Sensation, perception, and transduction defined -Sensation—detection of stimuli at the sensory organs; converts external energy into an internal representation (energy conversion in called transduction) -Perception—organizes, interprets the sensation -- occurs in brain -Transduction- transformation of external energy (light) into brain energy (neurotransmission) 4 Gestalt principles of perception -Proximity- things that are close together in proximity we assume go together -Similarity- objects that look alike we assume go together -Continuity- if we see a line we think of it as continuing in a continuous path -Closure- if we see an object with lines broken by gaps our minds fill in the gaps and see the whole shape Depth cues STIMULUS CUES FOR DEPTH PERCEPTION: • relative size-- larger=closer • height in visual field—distant objects higher in field • interposition—closer objects block farther ones • linear perspective—parallel lines converge in the distance • reduced clarity—objects at greater distances become fuzzy • light and shadow—casting a shadow provides a 3-D cue Bottom-up and top-down processing -Bottom-up processing---perceptions formed as the result of combining inputs about basic features -Top-down processing---brain interprets sensory information based on prior knowledge and expectations -Bottom up: take little parts, components and from that im going to tell a story about what the whole it